<p>The Harry P. Leu Gardens are semi-tropical and tropical gardens at 1920 North Forest Avenue in Orlando, Florida, United States. The gardens contain nearly 50 acre of landscaped grounds and lakes, with trails shaded by 200-year-old oaks and forests of camellias. They are open to the public.</p><br>
<p>A 15 acre section of the park, known as the Mizell-Leu House Historic District (or Leu Botanical Gardens and Leu House Museum), was designated a historic district on December 29, 1994. According to the National Register of Historic Places, it contains 3 historic buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The land on which the gardens were built is primarily severely drained, quickly to very quickly permeable sand with several inches of dark gray topsoil over about 5 feet of yellow subsoil (Candler soil series). Human soil modification has resulted in 40% of the Gardens being categorized as Urban Land, with no official soil series assigned. On rare occasions, naturally damp soils are discovered.</p><br>
<p>At the heart of the gardens is Harry and Mary Jane Leu&#39;s home, known as the Leu House Museum, which has been restored and is on the National Historical Register. Guided tours of the Leu House, illustrating turn-of-the century Florida living, are available on the hour and the half-hour (times subject to change).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Leu Gardens were started by Mr. and Mrs. Harry P. Leu, who in 1936 purchased Leu House and 40 acre of land. The Leus traveled all over the world and brought back many exotic plants and many varieties (240) of camellias for their gardens. In 1961, the Leus deeded the house and the gardens to the City of Orlando. Mr. Leu passed away in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>Leu Gardens is located in USDA climate zone 9b. The mild subtropical climate allows for a mix of temperate and tropical plants. The gardens are known for their extensive collections of aroids, azaleas, bamboo, bananas, bromeliads, camellias, citrus, conifers, crepe myrtles, cycads, ferns, flowering shrubs, flowering trees, gingers, heliconias, hibiscus and mallows, magnolias, ornamental grasses, palms, perennials, roses, trees, and vines.</p><br>
<p>The Hearst Memorial Mining Building at the University of California, Berkeley, is home to the university&#39;s Materials Science and Engineering Department, with research and teaching spaces for the subdisciplines of biomaterials; chemical and electrochemical materials; computational materials; electronic, magnetic, and optical materials; and structural materials. The Beaux-Arts-style Classical Revival building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places and is designated as part of California Historical Landmark #946. It was designed by John Galen Howard, with the assistance of architect and Berkeley alumna Julia Morgan and the Dean of the College of Mines at that time, Samuel B. Christy. It was the first building on that campus designed by Howard. Construction began in 1902 as part of the Phoebe Hearst campus development plan. The building was dedicated to the memory of her husband George Hearst, who had been a successful miner.</p><br>
<p>From 1998 to 2003, the building underwent a massive renovation, expansion, and seismic retrofit, in which a platform was built underneath the building, and a suspension system capable of up to 1 meter lateral travel was installed. To keep the expansion distinct from the historic building, shot peened aluminium (rather than stone) and a more modern design were used in the new construction.</p><br>
<p>The Lawson Adit - a horizontal mining tunnel - is directly to the east of the building.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the Hearst Memorial Mining Building began in 1902, and the building was completed in 1907, with a dedication ceremony held on August 23 of that year. The $1.065 million construction cost was a gift of Phoebe Apperson Hearst, dedicated to the memory of her late husband, Senator George Hearst, who had made much of his fortune in mining.</p><br>
<p>When construction began in 1903, the College of Mines, with its 247 students (or 11% of the total student population at the university) was the largest of its kind in the world. The college did not have a dedicated building, and due to the size of the college, the Hearst Memorial Mining Building was chosen as the first building under the Hearst Plan to be constructed.</p><br>
<p>University architect John Galen Howard designed the building with the assistance of the Dean of the College of Mines, Professor Samuel B. Christy and Berkeley-educated architect Julia Morgan. The architects set out to create a building that harmonized classical elements with architectural innovation, building off prior examples of European and American mining building architecture, and staying true to the Beaux-Arts style that defined Howard&#39;s vision for the Hearst campus plan.</p><br>
<p>Howard, reflecting upon their work after the construction was complete, said:</p><br>
<p>We have sought to secure beauty not by easy masquerade and putting on of architectural stuff, but by organic composition, working from within out, and letting the heart of the thing speak... If the expression be true, no matter how strange it may seem at first, in the end it must be seen to be inevitable.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior design</h3><br>
<p>The roof of the building is tiled, brackets made of timber, and ornamentation is of the classical tradition. The roof tiles are reminiscent of Spanish roofing tiles used in late (post-1790) California mission architecture. As the buildings centerpiece, the center vestibule was made notable from the exterior by being made the highest point of the buildings facade. Howard unified the exterior facade not by the classical elements of symmetry and hierarchy, but rather filled in voids with ornamental details. Six granite corbel sculptures created by Robert Ingersoll Aitken support the wooden roof brackets. According to Howard, the two male sculptures on the west signified "primal elements", and the two on the east "eternal forces", representative of the character of mining. The two central female sculptures provided a balancing presence, representing "the ideal art, the final flower of life--fresh, mysterious, pure--emerging from the void of chaos".</p><br>
<h3>Interior design</h3><br>
<p>The central entrance vestibule was dedicated to Senator Hearst, and was also to serve as a space for the mining museum. It was designed to recall Henri Labroustes Reading Room in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (1858–68). The golden oak doors that open into it from the buildings exterior were intended to create a dramatic entrance into an equally dramatic, high-ceilinged space where domes 50 feet in the air are covered in buff-toned Guastavino tiles. The columns that support the internal structure are composed of steel beams, and continue through two floors of balconies lined with blue-green cast-iron railings housed upon steel lattice trusses. Construction details such as its bricks are intentionally exposed to communicate a brusk aesthetic. The Guastavino tiles were a proprietary feature to the domed structural system. They were designed by the Valencian architect Rafael Guastavino, who had immigrated to the United States in 1881, earning notability for his work in the Boston Public Library vaults in the 1890s. Howard and the Guastavino Company kept a professional correspondence prior to the construction of the mining building, and Howard hired Guastavino&#39;s workers to install the tilework.</p><br>
<p>A plaque dedicated to George Hearst was placed on the north wall of the entryway, reading:</p><br>
<p>This building stands as memorial to George Hearst, a plain honest man and good miner. The stature and mould of his life bespoke the pioneers who gave their strength to riskful search in the hard places of the earth. He had warm heart toward his fellow men and his hand was ready to kindly deed. Taking his wealth from the hills he filched from no mans store and lessened no mans opportunity.</p><br>
<p>The rooms to the south and west of the vestibule were originally administrative offices, including the Office of the Dean. Lecture halls and the museum curator&#39;s office were on the south and east sides, respectively. In the central court to the north of the vestibule was the mining laboratory, and on the east and west ends of the laboratory were the metallurgic and research labs, a library, offices and lecture space. The 3-story-tall tower at the north end of the building was used for the crushing of dry ore. Adjacent east of the tower was the copper and lead smelting laboratory, and adjacent west a gold and silver mill.</p><br>
<h3>Symbolism</h3><br>
<p>Howard gave the building a brusque, industrial aesthetic as a complement to the softer aesthetic of the other buildings in the Hearst Plan. Howard referred to the Mining Building as "the kind, bluff brother amid a bevy of lovely sisters". These architectural features were also intended to communicate the function of the building. In an interview with the University of California Magazine in 1902, 5 years before the building&#39;s dedication ceremony, Howard reflects:</p><br>
<p>The aim has been to give expression to the character of a College of Mining Engineering as distinguished from one of Art, Letters, or of Natural Science. The expression of belles-lettres in architecture demands a more purely classic character than that of scientific studies. Such a building as a library, for instance, may without inconsistency rejoice in all the sumptuous glories of Roman architecture or the Renaissance; the tradition of the world leads on naturally enough in this direction. But... such delicate and highly organized motives find little place in a Mining Building, which demands a treatment, while no less beautiful, much more primitive, less elaborately developed in the matter of detail, less influenced by the extreme classic tradition either as a canon of proportion or as an architectonic schema. The profession of mining has to do with the very body and bone of the earth; its process is a ruthless assault upon the bowels of the world, a contest with the crudest and most rudimentary forces. There is about it something essentially elementary, something primordial; and its expression in architecture must, to be true, have something of the rude, the Cyclopean. The emotion roused must be a sense of power, rather than that of grace... To produce a design for a Mining Building which shall in all sincerity express its purpose and at the same time harmonize with future buildings quite as sincere in the expression of their purposes--purposes in almost every case of greater amenity--this has been the aim of the architect in approaching his task in its artistic phase.</p><br>
<p>Dexter Avenue Baptist Church is a Baptist church in Montgomery, Alabama, United States, affiliated with the Progressive National Baptist Convention. The church was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1974 because of its importance in the civil rights movement and American history. In 1978 the official name was changed to the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church, in memory of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who was pastor there and helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955 during the civil rights era. The church is located steps away from the Alabama State Capitol.</p><br>
<p>On January 1, 2008, the US Government submitted the church to UNESCO as part of an envisaged future World Heritage Site nomination, because of this important history. It is on the UNESCO "Tentative List of World Heritage Sites".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Dexter Avenue Baptist Church congregation was organized in 1877 by freedmen and free people of color. It was first known as the Second Colored Baptist Church. The church trustees paid $270 on January 30, 1879, for a lot at the corner of what is now Dexter Avenue and Decatur Street. The first church building was a small wood-frame building. The congregation began construction of a new building in 1883; the brick building was not completed until 1889. The church began serving the broader African American community on October 3, 1887, when it hosted the first registration of students for Alabama State University, a historically black college.</p><br>
<p>In 1899, William H. McAlpine became pastor; he was a cofounder of Selma University. Vernon Johns, an early leader of the Civil Rights Movement, served as pastor from 1947 to 1952. He was succeeded by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who was pastor of the church from 1954 to 1960. He organized the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott from his basement office.</p><br>
<p>Near the church is the former Dexter Parsonage, which served as home to twelve pastors of the church between 1920 and 1992. It is now operated as the Dexter Parsonage Museum, interpreting church history. The church was added, on its own merits, to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>Behind the church is the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Legacy Center, on 455 Washington Avenue. The courtyard has a statue of Dr. King.</p><br>
<p>Montgomery December 2018 44 (Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church).jpgExterior</p><br>
<p>Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church & Parsonage, Montgomery, Alabama LCCN2010637401.tifInterior</p><br>
<p>Montgomery December 2018 65 (Dexter Avenue King Memorial Legacy Center).jpgDexter Avenue King Memorial Legacy Center</p><br>
<p>Dexter Baptist Pastorium Apr2009 01.jpgDexter Parsonage Museum</p><br>
<p>Fulton Ferry is a small area adjacent to Dumbo in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The neighborhood is named for the Fulton Ferry, a prominent ferry line that crossed the East River between Manhattan and Brooklyn, and is also the name of the ferry slip on the Brooklyn side. The neighborhood is part of Brooklyn Community District 2.</p><br>
<p>The Fulton Ferry District is a national historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Today the area holds many popular attractions such as Pier One of Brooklyn Bridge Park and Grimaldi&#39;s Pizzeria. Bargemusic, a concert venue, is moored there today. Manhattan ferry service returned in 2006 at the next pier to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Ferry service</h2><br>
<h3>Fulton Ferry</h3><br>
<p>Though boats and sail ferries called at these locations since the 18th century, the inauguration of Robert Fulton&#39;s steam Fulton Ferry Company in 1814 established his name on the ferry service, which revolutionized travel between the then City of New York on Manhattan Island and the Village of Brooklyn and the rest of Long Island. The opening of the New York and Brooklyn Bridge in 1883 assured the decline of this and other ferries on the East River. Fulton Ferry service ended in 1924. The major thoroughfares leading to the Fulton Ferry from both landings were (and are) named Fulton Street, both in Manhattan and in Brooklyn. The BMT Fulton Street Line and BMT Lexington Avenue Line (or "Old Main Line") elevated railways both ended at the Brooklyn side of the ferry, but were later moved with the majority of trips using the Brooklyn Bridge.</p><br>
<h3>East River Ferry</h3><br>
<p>Ferry service to Manhattan returned in 2006, with New York Water Taxi operating seasonal service. In February 2011, New York Waterway was contracted to operate a route calling at six slips in Brooklyn and Queens as well as the Manhattan East Side terminals. Service, begun in June 2011, operates in both directions with year-round peak service running every 20 minutes. Additional Summer (April-Oct) daily service runs off-peak every 30 minutes. The NY Waterway service became part of NYC Ferrys East River route in May 2017. In addition, Fulton Ferry has been served by NYC Ferrys South Brooklyn route since 2017.</p><br>
<p>The Voice of America Bethany Relay Station. Located in Butler County, Ohio, about 25 miles north of Cincinnati, the facility was constructed by the USA government during World War II, to broadcast news and information to Europe and South America beginning in 1943. Once one of the world’s most powerful radio shortwave stations, it was decommissioned in 1994 and now operates as a non-profit museum.</p><br>
<p>This facility and others were constructed after President Franklin D. Roosevelt recognized the urgent need to increase USA shortwave radio capacity to broadcast information overseas. Roosevelt created the Office of War Information to counter government-controlled radio programs sponsored by Hitler, Mussolini and Japanese governments that spread messages of hate and propaganda. Roosevelt and OWI rejected the use of propaganda and instead broadcast fact-based news and information.</p><br>
<p>In the first phase of construction 23 shortwave transmitters were constructed in the USA for the VOA with programs originating from studios in New York until 1954, when VOA located its headquarters in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>Bethany Construction</p><br>
<p>Located on approximately 624 acres of farmland, it provided a secure alternative for inland transmission far from the east or west coasts. At that time, transmitters operating in Massachusetts, Long Island and New Jersey were vulnerable to attack from German submarines or invading forces.</p><br>
<p>Broadcasts were powered by (6) 200,000-watt transmitters built by Crosley Corp., under the supervision of R.J. Rockwell. The station and antenna field were located about one mile west of Crosley’s radio tower for WLW-AM radio station in Mason, Ohio. Construction of Bethany Station began in the summer of 1943, and the first broadcast was transmitted on September 23, 1944.</p><br>
<p>World War II Impact</p><br>
<p>Before creation of the Office of War Information, Crosley Corp. had a prior lease and broadcasting arrangement with the USA government in 1940, to operate radio station WLWO (WLW Overseas), broadcasting programs to South America and Europe. WLWO used specially designed (top secret) reentrant rhombic antennas to push their signal overseas.</p><br>
<p>Although WLWO provided Crosley Corp. with some familiarity with overseas broadcasts, the urgent timeline to construct Bethany Station pushed employees into new technological territory, requiring much larger and more powerful transmitters and antennas. Striving for high efficiency and better-quality sound transmission over equipment powerful enough to reach Europe, Mediterranean countries, and South Africa, all efforts would be wasted unless the listeners could receive, hear and understand the broadcasts. Under the Axis regimes, people caught listening to foreign broadcasts were imprisoned or killed, and authorities purposely jammed signals whenever possible. Eventually, Crosley employees were gratified by their efforts – its reputation for reliable, clearer transmissions over a variable schedule infuriated Adolf Hitler, who referred to the station as “those Zinzinnati Liars.”</p><br>
<p>The first broadcast aired in September of 1944. By Christmastime, the six transmitters were fully operational, on six international frequencies. The same program broadcast on two frequencies, and operators could switch to new frequencies in ten minutes. Shortwaves bounce off the ionosphere, and broadcast times and frequencies were adjusted throughout the day to assure the best transmission conditions. Bethany Station rebroadcast Winston Churchill’s May 8, 1945, Victory in Europe speech over the course of several days; unlike the BBC or AFN, who did not believe they had enough power to reach Germany. Its power across a range of frequencies and rapid switching ability, changed often to avoid jamming, set it apart from other stations.</p><br>
<p>Post War</p><br>
<p>President Harry S. Truman abolished the Office of War Information in 1945. Over the years, various agencies - the State Department and USA Information Agency, were responsible for its operation. In 1963, VOA Radio took over, ending the lease with Crosley Corp.</p><br>
<p>Due to changing technologies, transmissions shifted to satellites. The station was closed November 14, 1994, and the antenna towers brought down over the winter of 1997-1998.</p><br>
<p>Through the Federal Lands to Parks Program, the site was divided into several uses. West Chester Township acquired Bethany Station and 22 acres for historic preservation. Since closing there were several attempts to develop Bethany Station into a museum. In 2009 a group of citizens and preservationists formed a nonprofit to transform the station into a Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Museum and event space includes the original Control Room and exhibits illustrating how the station operated and functioned. Displays trace the region’s pioneering legacy contributing to regional and national radio and broadcasting milestones. Highlights covering the Crosley Brothers’ innovations in radio and television broadcasting, national defense and the American consumer economy is featured, as well as a unique STEM lab with hands-on demonstrations.</p><br>
<p>The Museum is the home of the (WC8V0A) which has an extensive installation within the Museum.</p><br>
<p>Governance</p><br>
<p>The Museum is a non-profit 501(c) (3) organization with a volunteer Board of Directors. With a limited compensated staff, the Museum relies on volunteers for most every aspect of operation.</p><br>
<p>The facility took its name from the Liberty Township community of Bethany, which was about two miles north of the facility.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1943, the United States government bought nearly all of Section 12 of Township 3, Range 2 of the Symmes Purchase, the northeasternmost section of Union Township. From Hazel Beckley, 170 acres (688,000 m) were purchased; from Philip Condon, 143 acres (579,000 m); from Lola Gray Coy, 100 acres (405,000 m); from John Miller, 69 acres (279,000 m); and from Suzie Steinman, 142 acres (575,000 m). The site was chosen for its elevation and its shallow bedrock and is today bounded by Tylersville Road on the south, Cox Road to the west, Liberty Way to the north, and Butler-Warren Road.</p><br>
<h3>Post War</h3><br>
<p>Following the war, with the OWI abolished, the facility was taken over by the State Department in 1945. It became part of the newly created United States Information Agency in 1953. The Crosley Broadcasting Corporation operated the facility for the government until November 1963, when the Voice of America assumed direct control.</p><br>
<h3>Post-closure use</h3><br>
<p>Most of the land was turned over to the county and township for use as a park.</p><br>
<p>Part in the southwest corner was sold to developers who have erected a shopping center called the Voice of America Centre.</p><br>
<p>The Miami University Voice of America Learning Center opened on the site in January 2009.</p><br>
<p>In 2022 and 2023, the Voice of America Park hosted a large music festival called "Voices of America", in part to honor the history of the station.</p><br>
<p>St. Patrick Cathedral is the cathedral of the Catholic Church located in Fort Worth, Texas, United States. It is a parish of the Diocese of Fort Worth and the seat of its bishop. Construction of St. Patrick&#39;s church began in 1888, and it was dedicated in 1892. It is listed along with nearby parish facilities on the National Register of Historic Places as the St. Patrick Cathedral Complex with the church building, the rectory, and St. Ignatius Academy regarded as contributing properties. The church and academy buildings are each recognized as Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Starting in 1870, Father Vincent Perrier would visit the Catholics living in Fort Worth twice a year. They met in the Carrico family home. Fort Worth&#39;s first Catholic parish was St. Stanislaus. Its church building was a frame structure on Throckmorton Street. In 1879, Father Thomas Loughrey, who by that time had been assigned as the pastor of St. Stanislaus, started a school for boys. Classes were held in the church until 1907, when the frame structure was torn down.</p><br>
<p>The present St. Patrick&#39;s church was built to the north of the old St. Stanislaus Church. The cornerstone was laid in 1888, and the church was dedicated in 1892. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The interior of the cathedral was filmed for a scene in the 1990 comedy film, Problem Child.</p><br>
<p>St. Patrick&#39;s Pro-Cathedral is a pro-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States, located in Newark, New Jersey within the Archdiocese of Newark. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 3, 1972, for its significance in architecture, art, religion, and social history. It was added as a contributing property of the James Street Commons Historic District on January 9, 1978.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Saint Patrick was built in 1846 and served as the seat of its prelate bishop from 1853 until the completion of the Basilica of the Sacred Heart. The red brick building features Gothic Revival architecture and a 150 ft tall central tower with copper spire.</p><br>
<p>The building has undergone extensive rehabilitation over the past fifteen years following years of declining membership. Several traditions remain, connecting the parish to its history as the "Old Cathedral" of Newark, including the 12:15 Ash Wednesday Liturgy with the Archbishop, the 12:15 Sunday Liturgy on Easter in memory of the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin, the annual Newark Fire Department memorial Mass, and many other archdiocesan and Irish-heritage events. The parish is also the national shrine to Our Lady of El Quinche.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>With the influx of Irish and German immigrants in the 1840s, Bishop John Hughes of New York authorized Rev. Patrick Moran, pastor of St. John&#39;s Parish, to build a new church. The building was probably designed by architect Patrick Keely of Brooklyn. The property was the Thomas Ward estate. When it was sold at auction, several parishioners purchased the lots.</p><br>
<p>Bishop Hughes laid the cornerstone on Sept. 17, 1848. Rev. Louis Dominic Senez, assistant at St. Johns was named the first pastor. The church was dedicated on March 10, 1850. St. Patricks was the third Catholic church in Newark, after St. Johns and the German parish of St. Marys. The old ward mansion became an Orphan&#39;s Asylum. Father Senez set up his residence in the same building, where he tended the children during the smallpox epidemic the following year.</p><br>
<p>In 1853, the Diocese of Newark was created, and James Roosevelt Bayley named bishop. He designated St. Patricks as the pro-cathedral until such time as a cathedral could be built. He appointed Rev. Bernard McQuaid as rector. Following the Pontifical Mass welcoming the bishop, McQuaid hosted the diocesan clergy at a dinner, but had to sell his horse and buggy to cover the expense. The Sisters of Charity of New York were brought in to manage to the Orphans Asylum.</p><br>
<p>To accommodate the increased ceremonies of a cathedral, McQuaid added a sacristy. The addition of the Chapel of St. Vincent de Paul in 1859 created room for another 400 people. John Jelliff of John Jelliff & Co of Newark designed the bishop&#39;s chair as well as the cover of the baptismal font. Although forbidden to volunteer as a Union chaplain, in the spring of 1864 McQuaid managed to visit Fredericksburg, Virginia and tended to the wounded and dying soldiers.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The parish serves both a small Catholic community in downtown Newark and a larger community of commuters who work in Newark.</p><br>
<p>Candler Park is a 55-acre  city park located at 585 Candler Park Drive NE, in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It is named after Coca-Cola magnate Asa Griggs Candler, who donated this land to the city in 1922. The park features a nine-hole golf course, a swimming pool, a football/soccer field, a basketball court, tennis courts, and a playground.</p><br>
<p>Candler Park is also the name of the neighborhood surrounding the park. It is on the east side of the city, bordering Little Five Points, Lake Claire, Inman Park, Druid Hills, and Edgewood.</p><br>
<p>The Candler Park Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 8, 1983, with a boundary increase on March 17, 2005. It includes portions of Lake Claire.</p><br>
<p>MARTA rapid transit rail service is available at the Edgewood/Candler Park station.</p><br>
<h2>School districts</h2><br>
<p>Public-school attendance zones include :</p><br>
<p>David T. Howard Middle School</p><br>
<p>Midtown High School</p><br>
<p>Over-the-Rhine, often abbreviated as OTR, is a residential neighborhood located in the urban basin of Cincinnati, Ohio. Over-the-Rhine is among the largest, most intact urban historic districts in the United States. Originally settled by Ohio Rhinelanders , the neighborhood became home to significant African-American and Appalachian populations during the mid-20th century. It is home to several of Cincinnati&#39;s most famous landmarks, including Music Hall and Findlay Market.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood&#39;s name comes from Rhinelanders who settled the area in the mid-19th century. Many walked to work across bridges over the Miami and Erie Canal, which separated the area from downtown Cincinnati. The canal was nicknamed "the Rhine" in reference to the river Rhine in Germany, and the newly settled area north of the canal as "Over the Rhine". In German, the district was called über den Rhein.</p><br>
<p>An early reference to the canal as "the Rhine" appears in the 1853 book White, Red, Black, in which traveler Ferenc Pulszky wrote, "The Germans live all together across the Miami Canal, which is, therefore, here jocosely called the Rhine. " In 1875 writer Daniel J. Kenny referred to the area exclusively as "Over the Rhine." He noted, "Germans and Americans alike love to call the district Over the Rhine. "</p><br>
<p>Eventually, the canal was drained and capped by Central Parkway; the resulting tunnel was to be used for the now-defunct Cincinnati Subway project.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Built in the nineteenth century during a period of extensive German immigration, first settled by Pennsylvania Dutch and bolstered by Rhinelanders and other Germans, Over-the-Rhine began to change demographically as residents moved to the suburbs following World War II. The city and area had lost many of the industrial jobs that once supported its workers. By the end of the century, the area was noted for its poverty. Residents united and created many life-saving organizations. Following social unrest in 2001, the neighborhood has since been the focus of millions of dollars of redevelopment.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Over-the-Rhine, one of the largest, most intact urban historic districts in the United States, and the Brewery District are north of Liberty Street. South of Liberty are the Gateway Quarter and Pendleton.</p><br>
<h3>The Washington Park Area</h3><br>
<p>In recent years, developers have renamed this portion of Over-the-Rhine as "The Gateway Quarter". This area has been the focal point of gentrification, which has displaced African Americans and low-income residents. More than 1,000 African Americans left this area between 2000 and 2010, and by 2012 it had become a predominantly white, wealthy and exclusive section of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>The Brewery District</h3><br>
<p>North of Liberty Street sat the heart of Cincinnatis beer brewing industry. Christian Moerlein established his first brewing company in Over-the-Rhine in 1853. Eventually the Christian Moerlein Brewing Co. became the citys largest brewery and expanded into the national market. At its height the brewery occupied three entire city blocks. Prohibition brought an end to the company in the 1920s. In 2010 the revived Christian Moerlein Brewing Co. began brewing beer in the Brewery District once again.</p><br>
<h3>North of Liberty Street</h3><br>
<p>This area of the neighborhood has been relatively untouched by recent "gentrification efforts" and may resemble 1990s OTR better than other areas.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1820s, English writer Fanny Trollope, mother of Anthony Trollope, lived in the Mohawk area, which today is considered part of Over-the-Rhine. The acerbic portrayal of Americans of that period in her book Domestic Manners of the Americans is based in part on her interactions with the rough-hewn residents of the area.</p><br>
<p>Until 1849, todays Liberty Street, then called Northern Row, was the corporation line forming Cincinnatis northern boundary. The area north of Northern Row was not subject to municipal law and was called "The Northern Liberties". In 1955, the city decided to widen Liberty Street to connect with Reading Road as an east-west crosstown access point for the interstate highway system. Buildings on the south side of the street were demolished and the street was widened from two to five lanes. As of 2019, efforts are underway to narrow Liberty Street to bridge the gap between these halves of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Revitalization</h2><br>
<h3>Over-the-Rhine Neighborhood Revitalization</h3><br>
<p>Over-the-Rhine, the site of the 2001 Cincinnati riots, became the city&#39;s most dangerous neighborhood by 2009. However, it has since seen intensive redevelopment efforts. Private development corporations and city officials have begun to address the problems that come with a neighborhood with low employment and high crime rates. A neo-liberal urban renewal strategy encourages private corporations rather than the city government to take on renewing and updating this area.</p><br>
<h3>Cincinnati Center City Development Corporation</h3><br>
<p>The Cincinnati Center City Development Corporation (3CDC) is a private, non-profit real-estate development and finance organization focused on revitalizing Cincinnati&#39;s urban core with the city government and local corporations. Its work is focused on the central business district and in the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood. The organization is widely credited with revitalizing OTR. The organization began as a full-service real estate developer, but has since branched out and produces more than 1,000 events per year at the four civic spaces it manages: Fountain Square, Washington Park, Ziegler Park and Memorial Hall.</p><br>
<p>In July 2003, 3CDC was formed by former mayor of Cincinnati Charlie Luken and other corporate community members. This was a result of a recommendation by a City of Cincinnati Economic Development Task Force. Most funds are gathered through corporate contributions. In 2004, 3CDC accepted responsibility for overseeing Cincinnati New Markets Fund and Cincinnati Equity Fund. As of May 2018, those funds total over $250 million and have resulted in over $1.3 billion invested in downtown and Over-the-Rhine real estate projects.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Over-the-Rhine has been praised for its collection of historic architecture. The New York Times described the neighborhood as having "a scale and grace reminiscent of Greenwich Village in New York." Its architectural significance has also been compared to the French Quarter in New Orleans and the historic districts of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina. When Arthur Frommer, founder of the Frommer&#39;s travel guides, visited Over-the-Rhine he described it as the most promising urban area for revitalization in the United States, and claimed that its potential for tourism "literally could rival similar prosperous and heavily visited areas."</p><br>
<p>Most of Over-the-Rhine&#39;s ornate brick buildings were built by German immigrants from 1865 to the 1880s. Most of the buildings in Over-the-Rhine are one of these styles, but other motifs include the Art Deco American Building on Central Parkway; the Germania Building at Twelfth and Walnut streets, ironically one of the few examples of German ornamentation in the neighborhood; Music Hall, a mixture of styles best described as Venetian Gothic; a handful of buildings with Gothic architecture; and the new SCPA on Central Parkway, the most notable example of Modern architecture in the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>New construction</h3><br>
<p>Noted Indianapolis architect Evans Woollen III and his architectural firm of Woollen, Molzan and Partners helped redevelop the historic neighborhood in the 1970s and 1980s. Woollen designed the Over-the-Rhine Pilot Center (1972–84), a group of four modern, mixed-use buildings within a two-block area. The Pilot Center buildings included a recreational center, a senior citizens center, a Montessori school and daycare center, and a meeting and event space. Funding for the $2.5 million project came from the USA Department of Housing and Urban Development.</p><br>
<h3>Historic restoration</h3><br>
<p>In 2011 the Over-the-Rhine Foundation, which works to prevent historic building loss in OTR, won third place in the National Trust for Historic Preservations nationwide "This Place Matters" community challenge. In 2006 the National Trust for Historic Preservation listed the status of Over-the-Rhine as "Endangered." Since 1930, about half of Over-the-Rhines historic buildings have been destroyed. More will follow unless deteriorating buildings are repaired. Between 2001 and 2006, the city approved more than 50 "emergency demolitions," which were caused by absentee landlords&#39; allowing their buildings to become so critically dilapidated that the city declared them a danger to the public. Reinvestment could have saved them. Due to the situation, the National Trust for Historic Preservation declared Over-the-Rhine one of Eleven Most Endangered Historic Places in 2006.</p><br>
<p>According to WCPO in 2001, some of the worst-kept properties at the time were owned by Over-the-Rhine&#39;s non-profits, which let the buildings sit vacant and deteriorating because of lack of funds or volunteers. With some buildings on the verge of collapse, investors and real-estate developers are trying to restore them before deterioration to the point of requiring demolition. According to the USA Census Bureau in 2010, part of Over-the-Rhine had one of the highest rates of abandoned and vacant homes in the country. They classified it then as the sixth hardest area in the nation to get an accurate population count.</p><br>
<p>In recent years there has been a burst of restoration and development slowly moving northward year by year from Central Parkway, with a focus on attracting local small businesses rather than national chains. Developers have restored and renovated the abandoned buildings, the city renovated nearby Washington Park, and businesses and residents have moved into what were abandoned spaces. Local chefs and artisan brewers in particular embraced the area, and in 2018 Food & Wine Magazine called it "one of the country&#39;s most promising food scenes."</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>In 2001 there were an estimated 500 vacant buildings in Over-the-Rhine with 2,500 residential units. Of those residential units 278 were condemned as uninhabitable. Also in 2001 the owner-occupancy rate was between 3 and 4 percent compared to the citywide rate of 39 percent. According to the "Drilldown", a comprehensive analysis of the citys actual population and demographics conducted in 2007, OTRs current population was just 4,970.</p><br>
<p>At the 2000 census, the racial makeup of Over-the-Rhine was 19.4% White, 76.9% African American, and less than 4% of other races. 0.6% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race. The neighborhood&#39;s residents comprise roughly 1.2% of the population of the City of Cincinnati.</p><br>
<p>Recent gentrification has changed the demographic makeup of the area as residents moving in tend to have a higher income and are more likely to be white. By 2018 the website statisticalatlas.com was estimating OTR&#39;s population to be 34% white and 54% black, with 56% of those between the ages of 20 and 24 being white.</p><br>
<h2>In media</h2><br>
<p>In the movie Ides of March, George Clooney plays a politician who campaigns at Memorial Hall in Over-the-Rhine.</p><br>
<p>In the movie Traffic (2000), the teenage daughter of the US drug czar becomes addicted to heroin and goes to Over-the-Rhine for drugs.</p><br>
<p>Harry&#39;s Law (2011), an NBC legal comedy-drama, is set in Over-the-Rhine, though only old stock photos are shown. No filming was done in Over-the-Rhine or Cincinnati.</p><br>
<p>Little Man Tate (1991) was filmed in Over-the-Rhine as well as various other Cincinnati locations.</p><br>
<p>A Rage in Harlem (1991) was filmed in Over-the-Rhine because it resembled 1950s Harlem.</p><br>
<p>In Eight Men Out (1988) scenes depicting Chicago in 1919 were shot in Over-the-Rhine.</p><br>
<p>Over-the-Rhine and other nearby neighborhoods are featured in the 3 Doors Down music video “It&#39;s Not My Time”.</p><br>
<p>In music, the folk-rock group Over the Rhine took its name from the Cincinnati neighborhood, where the band first started in 1989.</p><br>
<p>The indie band Big Red Machine has a song called "The Ghost of Cincinnati" which repeatedly references Over-the-Rhine and its gentrification.</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati-born vocalist Matt Berninger references the neighborhood in the lyrics of the 2015 EL VY song "I&#39;m the Man to Be."</p><br>
<p>Electronic Music Producer "OTR" took his name from the Cincinnati neighborhood, when he saw the transformation it was undergoing mirrored his own.</p><br>
<h2>List of annual events</h2><br>
<p>A partial list of Over-the-Rhine’s distinctive annual events includes:</p><br>
<p>Bockfest</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati Fringe Festival Annual - Occurs the two weeks after Memorial Day</p><br>
<p>MidPoint Music Festival</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati May Festival</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati Reds Opening Day Parade from Findlay Market to Fountain Square</p><br>
<p>Nowhere Else Music and Arts Festival</p><br>
<h2>List of landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Most of Over-the-Rhine&#39;s landmarks are related to the arts and are clustered in one area near Downtown.</p><br>
<p>Art Academy of Cincinnati, founded in 1869, is a four-year arts college with its campus centered around 12th and Jackson streets.</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati Music Hall, built in 1878, is a concert theatre that hosts the Cincinnati Opera, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra, and the Cincinnati May Festival.</p><br>
<p>Emery Theatre was built as the original home of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. Famous conductor Leopold Stokowski considered its acoustics comparable to Carnegie Hall.</p><br>
<p>It is currently closed for renovations.</p><br>
<p>Ensemble Theatre of Cincinnati In Over The Rhine since 1988, a theatre that presents new works and works that are new to the region.</p><br>
<p>Findlay Market is the oldest continuously operated public market in Ohio. It is also the site of special events and a farmers&#39; market.</p><br>
<p>Know Theatre of Cincinnati a theatre that produces contemporary theatre with new works and regional premieres. Know Theatre produces the annual Cincinnati Fringe Festival - the largest performing arts festival in Cincinnati.</p><br>
<p>Memorial Hall is the home of the Cincinnati Chamber Orchestra, the progressive MusicNow festival, and the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and Museum.</p><br>
<p>School for Creative and Performing Arts is the first K-12 selective arts school in the United States. In 2009 the school was the subject of the MTV reality television series Taking the Stage.</p><br>
<p>Washington Park, the second oldest park in the city behind Piatt Park, originally established as a burial ground for several small churches.</p><br>
<p>Cincinnati Ballet</p><br>
<h3>List of historic churches</h3><br>
<p>St. Paulus Kirche, 1419 Race Street, German Evangelical Protestant (Oldest Protestant church in the city)</p><br>
<p>German Baptist Church, Walnut and Liberty Streets</p><br>
<p>Old St. Mary&#39;s Church, 123 E. Thirteenth Street</p><br>
<p>Philippus United Church of Christ, West Mcmicken and Ohio Avenues</p><br>
<p>St. John the Baptist Church, Green and Bremen Streets</p><br>
<p>Saint Francis Seraph Church, Vine and Liberty Streets</p><br>
<p>St. Paul Church, East 12th and Spring Streets</p><br>
<p>Salem United Church of Christ, 1425 Sycamore Street</p><br>
<p>Nast Trinity United Methodist Church, 1310 Race Street (Known as Over-the-Rhine Community Methodist Church since 2015)</p><br>
<p>Wesley Chapel, 76 E. McMicken Avenue</p><br>
<p>Prince of Peace Lutheran Church, 1528 Race Street</p><br>
<p>First Lutheran Church, 1208 Race Street</p><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Unitarian Church, 1205 Elm Street</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Buddy Gray, community activist</p><br>
<p>Anna Marie Hahn, serial killer</p><br>
<p>Ronald Howes, American toy inventor, created the Easy-Bake Oven</p><br>
<p>Venus Ramey, 1944 Miss America winner</p><br>
<p>Ed Galloways Totem Pole Park consists of eleven objects and one building on 14 acres  in Rogers County, in northeastern Oklahoma. The park is ten miles  north-east of Claremore and is located 3.5 miles  east of historic USA Route 66 and Foyil. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 30, 1999. The park is now owned and operated by the Rogers County Historical Society. The parks main totem pole is billed as the "World’s Largest Concrete Totem Pole."</p><br>
<h2>History and creation</h2><br>
<p>The park was constructed by Ed Galloway (b. 1880 in Springfield, Missouri; d. 1961 in Foyil, Oklahoma). A US Army veteran who had served in the Philippines, he began carving monumental sculptures from tree trunks when he returned to the United States after his military service. In 1914, his work attracted the interest of Tulsa-based philanthropist Charles Page, who employed him as a manual arts teacher at the Children&#39;s Home orphanage in Sand Springs, Oklahoma.</p><br>
<p>Upon his retirement in 1937, Galloway moved to a small farm near Foyil, located 10 miles (16 km) north-east of Claremore and 3.5 miles (6 km) east of historic USA Route 66. He soon began work on a totem pole, which he built using modern building materials, including six tons of steel, 28 tons of cement, and 100 tons of sand and rock. The entire totem pole is decorated with approximately 200 bas relief images, which include brightly colored Native American portraits, symbols, and animal figures.</p><br>
<p>The park also features Galloway&#39;s eleven-sided "Fiddle House," which is supported inside and out by 25 concrete totem poles. It previously housed his hand-carved fiddles, handmade furniture, and bas relief portraits of all of the US Presidents up to John F. Kennedy. Many of the items in the Fiddle House were stolen in 1970 and never recovered. The park also contains four smaller concrete totems, two ornate concrete picnic tables with animal-form seats, a barbecue, and four sets of animal-form gateposts.</p><br>
<p>Galloway lived at and worked on the park every day up to his death in 1962 of cancer. Some say that he hoped to use his work to educate young people about Native Americans, but others say that he thought the park would be a good place for youngsters, Boy Scouts in particular, to visit.</p><br>
<h2>Renovation</h2><br>
<p>In the decades following Galloway&#39;s death, the sculptures began to deteriorate from weather and neglect. In the 1990s, the Kansas Grassroots Art Association led an extensive restoration effort. The outdoor sculptures were restored and repainted. The Fiddle House was brought back from the brink of collapse, and adapted as the Fiddle House Museum and Gift Shop.</p><br>
<p>Further restoration on the main totem pole&#39;s lower 20’ was done in the 2008-2009 timeframe. Work on the upper section was begun in mid-June 2015, and completed by mid-August 2020.</p><br>
<p>City Point  is an area in what is now The Hill neighborhood of the city of New Haven, Connecticut, located in the southwestern portion of the city. The City Point area was, when settled and through the 18th century, a relatively narrow peninsula extending south into New Haven Harbor, located where the West River empties into the harbor. Areas adjacent to the original peninsula have since been filled in, broadening its shoulders, and Interstate 95 has cut across it. The Oyster Point Historic District is a 26 acre historic district encompassing an area of relatively old buildings in City Point south of I-95.</p><br>
<h2>Neighborhood definitions</h2><br>
<p>City Point is bordered on the west by the West River, on the north by Amtrak railroad tracks, on the east by Hallock Avenue, and on the south by New Haven Harbor. An earlier tradition defines the northern border as "the southern back yards of Lamberton Street between Hallock and Greenwich Aves." When the neighborhood was bisected by the Connecticut Turnpike in the 1950s some began to describe City Point as consisting only of the portion south of the highway (Sixth St. to South Water St.) although this is a change from historic usage. Most of the portion south of I-95 is listed as Oyster Point Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places, referencing the old name of the neighborhood, Oyster Point. The area along Howard Avenue north of I-95 is included in a separate historic district, the Howard Avenue Historic District. Waterfront condominiums, I-95 and its ramps, and other portions of the neighborhood are not included in any historic district.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood was originally a "point" or peninsula surrounded by New Haven Harbor on the east and south, bordering what is now Hallock Ave. & South Water Street, and the West River wetlands on the west, bordering what is now Greenwich Ave. In the 19th and early 20th Century, until public health authorities condemned the oyster beds, City Points economy included oyster harvesting and fishing from the waters of New Haven Harbor and Long Island Sound. In 1929 the Boulevard was extended to Sea St., and the West River salt marsh began to be filled in (ultimately becoming Kimberly Field, consisting of two baseball diamonds). In the early 20th century, Second St. was extended to Kimberly Ave. and the first St. Peter Catholic Church was built. The parish included the traditional City Point neighborhood between Greenwich Ave. and Hallock Ave, as well as the Kimberly Ave. area. Thus by the mid 20th century, some residents of Kimberly, Grant, Cassius & Plymouth streets also considered themselves to be City Point residents—even though this area never was part of the geographical "point" from which City Point had derived its name. With the construction of the Connecticut Turnpike/Interstate 95 in the mid-1950s, most of the water on City Points eastern border also was filled in. The eastern waters were replaced with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroads yard, One Long Wharfs parking lot, the New Haven Food Terminal, & both Sargent Drive and Long Wharf Drive. Thus today only the southern tip of City Point is bordered by water. Yet when viewing a map of the area, the street grid still clearly shows the original outline of the neighborhood and "point" bounded by Greenwich Ave. and Hallock Ave. In 1978 the (Ella T. Grasso) Boulevard finally was completed, with the construction of a bridge over the railroad tracks, thereby connecting lower Kimberly Ave. to the rest of the Hill. At the end of the 20th century, the second St. Peter Church was demolished along with St. Peter & Kimberly Ave. Schools, and Second St. was returned to its original 1868 configuration. Consequently, today most residents of Kimberly, Grant, Plymouth & Cassius streets consider themselves to be in the Kimberly Square neighborhood or simply part of The Hill, rather than part of City Point.</p><br>
<h2>Oyster Point Historic District</h2><br>
<p>The Oyster Point Historic District area within the City Point neighborhood was listed as a historic district on the USA National Register of Historic Places in 1989.</p><br>
<p>The district&#39;s area was a productive oystering community during 1840 to 1925. Extensive tidal flats used to extend out from the area, but have been reduced by landfill and dredging.</p><br>
<p>The district today is a cohesive neighborhood which includes a number of oystermen&#39;s houses, which is a distinct architectural style of the mid-19th century, and several Queen Anne style houses. As of the NRHP listing, the district included 108 single- or multi-family houses built during 1840 to 1925.</p><br>
<p>The district includes the southern portion of a park. Bay View Park was developed in the 1890s and includes a Civil War monument. It was reduced to its current 12 acre size by I-95s construction through its center. The former Boulevard Sewage Treatment plant was significant for being New Havens first sewage treatment facility, and also was significant for its Art Deco architecture, but blocked what was formerly a shoreline drive. It was demolished to expand the Sound School&#39;s campus.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>New Haven Harbor</p><br>
<p>The Sound School</p><br>
<p>Norridgewock  was the name of both an Indigenous village and a band of the Abenaki  Native Americans/First Nations, an Eastern Algonquian tribe of the United States and Canada. The French of New France called the village Kennebec. The tribe occupied an area in the interior of Maine. During colonial times, this area was territory disputed between British and French colonists, and was set along the claimed western border of Acadia, the western bank of the Kennebec River.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence has identified several different sites associated with the settlement known as Norridgewock. The last one, where the French Jesuit priest Sebastian Rale had a mission, is today called Old Point, and is located in Madison. Other sites are located nearby in Starks and the present-day town of Norridgewock. Three of these historically and archaeologically significant areas have been collectively designated as the Norridgewock Archaeological District, a National Historic Landmark District.</p><br>
<h2>Norridgewock Village</h2><br>
<p>Norridgewock is a corruption of the word Nanrantsouak, meaning "people of the still water between the rapids." Their principal village, also called Norridgewock, was located near 44.767&deg; latitude, -69.8833&deg; longitude on a plateau within a broad bend of the Kennebec River, opposite its confluence with the Sandy River. A 1716 account by surveyor Joseph Heath describes the village as a square fort surrounded by a 9 ft palisade fence, each side 160 ft long with a gate at its center. The fort&#39;s walls faced the major points of the compass. Two streets connected the gates, forming an open square at the center marked by a large cross. The stockade enclosed 26 cabins "built much after the English manner"—probably of logs. Canoes were beached along the river, although paddles were stored in the cabins. Extensive fields were cleared nearby for cultivation of maize, wheat, beans, pumpkins and squash. Twice a year, summer and winter, the tribe spent a few months at the seashore catching fish, seals, clams, oysters and seafowl.</p><br>
<p>France claimed the Kennebec River because it provided a potential route to invade Quebec (as Benedict Arnold would demonstrate in 1775). English colonists claimed the St. George River because they held deeds, even though the sachems who signed them often believed they were only granting the right to use the land for hunting, fishing or safe passage. The French insisted that the sachems were not empowered to sell land, since the Abenaki territory belonged to the entire tribe. France and England were at peace, and New France could not take overt action against the settlements (and particularly their alarming blockhouses) in the disputed area. Instead, the French government secretly engaged the Indians, guided by their French Jesuit missionaries, to hinder the expansion of English colonists. Missionaries with a dual loyalty to church and king were embedded within Abenaki bands on the Penobscot, St. Croix and Saint John rivers. However, Norridgewock Village was considered Quebec&#39;s predominant advance guard.</p><br>
<p>In 1694, Father Sébastien Rale (or Rasle) arrived at Norridgewock to establish a Jesuit mission, the first school in Maine. He built a chapel of bark in 1698, and despite objections from the medicine men, Rale converted most of the inhabitants to Roman Catholicism. The chapel burned in 1705, but it was replaced with a church in 1720. It stood twenty paces outside the east gate, and measured 60 ft long by 25 ft wide, with an 18 ft ceiling. Forty Abenaki youths in cassocks and surplices served as acolytes. In a 1722 letter written to John Goffe, the church was described by Johnson Harmon and Joseph Heath as:</p><br>
<p>... a large handsome log building adorned with many pictures and toys to please the Indians...</p><br>
<p>Speaking the Abenaki language fluently, Father Rale immersed himself in Indian affairs. His "astonishing influence over their minds" raised suspicions that he was inciting hostility toward the Protestant British colonists, whom he considered heretics.</p><br>
<h2>King William&#39;s War</h2><br>
<h3>Raid on Oyster River</h3><br>
<p>During King William&#39;s War, on July 18, 1694, French soldier Claude-Sébastien de Villieu with about 250 Abenakis from Norridgewock under command of their sagamore (paramount chief), Bomazeen (or Bomoseen) raided the English colonial settlement of Durham, New Hampshire, in the "Oyster River Massacre". The French and Abenakis killed 45 English settlers and took 49 more captive, burning half of the village, including five garrisons. They destroyed the crops and killed all of the livestock, causing famine and destitution for the survivors.</p><br>
<h2>Queen Anne&#39;s War</h2><br>
<p>When Queen Anne&#39;s War broke out, with New France and New England again fighting over the border between New England and Acadia, Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley arranged a conference with tribal representatives in 1703 to propose that they remain neutral. On the contrary, however, the Norridgewock tribe in August joined a larger force of French and Indians, commanded by Alexandre Leneuf de Beaubassin, to attack Wells in the Northeast Coast Campaign. Father Rale was widely suspected of inciting the tribe against English colonists because their settlements and blockhouses encroached on Abenaki land (and so uncomfortably close to Quebec), but also because they were Protestant and therefore heretics. Governor Dudley put a price on his head. In the winter of 1705, 275 English colonial militia under the command of Colonel Winthrop Hilton were dispatched to seize Rale and sack the village. Warned in time, the priest escaped into the woods with his papers, but the militia burned the village and church.</p><br>
<h3>Raid on Wells (1703)</h3><br>
<p>As part of the Northeast Coast Campaign (1703), 500 Indians, including those from Norridgewock and a few French, commanded by Alexandre Leneuf de Beaubassin, raided Wells on August 10 and 11, 1703.</p><br>
<h3>Raid on Norridgewock (1705)</h3><br>
<p>In retaliation, there was a bounty put on Father Rale. Finding the village deserted in the winter of 1705 because its occupants, including Rale had been warned of an impending attack, Colonel Winthrop Hilton ordered his 275 English colonial militia to burn the village and the church.</p><br>
<p>With the Treaty of Utrecht and Treaty of Portsmouth (1713), however, peace was restored between France and England. Terms of the treaty required that the French yield Acadia to the English. The boundary of Acadia remained in dispute. The two nations disagreed, and consequently imperial boundaries between Quebec and the Province of Massachusetts Bay remained unclear and disputed until the Treaty of Paris in 1763.</p><br>
<p>In 1713, the Norridgewocks had sought peace with English at the Treaty of Portsmouth, and accepted the convenience of trading posts operated by English settlers on their land (though they protested the tendency of the settlers to cheat them). After all, beaver and other skins could be exchanged for cheap goods following a journey of one or two days, when travel to Quebec up the Kennebec, with its rapids and portages, required over 15 days.</p><br>
<h2>Father Rale&#39;s War</h2><br>
<p>But their acceptance of English settlers faded as Rale instigated the tribe against the encroachment of houses and blockhouses that followed trading posts. He taught the Abenaki that their territory should be held in trust for their children. On July 28, 1721, 250 Abenakis in 90 canoes delivered a letter at Georgetown addressed to Governor Samuel Shute, demanding that English settlers quit Abenaki lands. Otherwise, they would be killed and their settlements destroyed.</p><br>
<h3>Raid on Norridgewock (1722)</h3><br>
<p>In response, Norridgewock was raided in January 1722 by 300 English colonial militia under Colonel Thomas Westbrook. They discovered the village almost deserted, with the gates wide open. The tribe was gone hunting. Troops searched for Rale but found only his papers, including letters from New France Governor-general Vaudreuil promising ammunition for Abenaki raids on English colonial settlements. The tribe retaliated for the invasion by attacking settlements below them on the Kennebec, burning Brunswick on June 13, 1722. Some of the raids were accompanied by Rale, who would occasionally allow himself to be seen from houses and blockhouses under siege. On July 25, 1722, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the eastern Indians.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Norridgewock (1724)</h3><br>
<p>During Father Rales War, at about 3:00 pm on August 23, 1724 (N. S.), a force of English colonial militia attacked Norridgewock for the last time. A force of 208 militia had left Fort Richmond (now Richmond) and divided, leaving about 80 militiamen including three Mohawks under the command of Captain Jeremiah Moulton. His militia quietly approached the village, which at that time no longer had a stockade. A startled Indian emerging from a cabin gave a war whoop, then darted back inside to get his musket. Norridgewock women and children ran from houses to swim or ford across the river and up into the woods. In the confusion, about 60 braves fired guns wildly but did little harm. At that point the militia, ordered to withhold fire until after the enemys first volley, took aim—with deadly effect. The warriors fired again, then fled across the river, leaving 26 dead and 14 wounded. Bomazeen (or Bomaseen), the sachem, who with Sebastien de Villieu had led 250 Abenakis to Durham, New Hampshire on July 18, 1694, for the Oyster River Massacre, was shot fording the Kennebec at a place thereafter called Bomazeen Rips. From a cabin, old Chief Mogg shot one of the Mohawks, whose brother then shot him. Meanwhile, from another cabin Father Rale was firing at the militia. Refusing to surrender, he was shot through the head while reloading his gun.</p><br>
<p>Scalps of the dead were collected for bounties in Boston. The militia plundered 3 barrels of gunpowder, together with a few guns, blankets and kettles, before returning to their whaleboats at Taconic Falls. One of the Mohawks, a brave named Christian, slipped back to set the village and church on fire, then rejoined the militia. The 150 survivors of Norridgewock returned the next day to bury the dead. Subsequently, most abandoned the area and, "in deplorable condition", relocated to Saint-François and Bécancour in Quebec. A few years later, however, many survivors returned to the Upper Kennebec from their refuge in Quebec, and a Jesuit missionary, Jacques de Sirenne, was assigned to their spiritual care.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Norridgewock Village is the setting for the 1836 poem Mogg Megone by John Greenleaf Whittier.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological investigation of the Old Point area has identified three separate areas that are historically associated with the appellation "Norridgewock". The principal site at Old Point has long been well documented, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 as "Old Point and Sebastian Rale Monument", recognizing not just the site itself, but also the placement of a commemorative marker at the site in 1833. A second site called Tracy Farm is located about 500 m north of the confluence of the Sandy and Kennebec Rivers in Starks, on the west side of the Kennebec. This site was first professionally excavated in 1983, with finds matching historical descriptions of very early references to Norridgewock. Extensive excavation in 1990 collected 15,000 artifacts from the Late Woodland and early contact periods, and identified the site of at least one longhouse. Another site, located nearer the confluence of the two rivers in Starks, also yielded evidence of habitation during the Late Woodland period. This site showed evidence of repeated flooding, suggesting that the habitation areas were later moved to the higher grounds of Tracy Farm and Old Point. These three sites were collectively designated a National Historic Landmark District and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.</p><br>
<p>The Ennis House is a residential dwelling in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States, south of Griffith Park. The home was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright for Charles and Mabel Ennis in 1923 and was built in 1924.</p><br>
<p>Following La Miniatura in Pasadena, and the Storer and Freeman Houses in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, the structure is the fourth and largest of Wright&#39;s textile block designs, constructed primarily of interlocking pre-cast concrete blocks, in the northern Los Angeles area.</p><br>
<p>The design is based on ancient Maya temples, and along with other buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright, such as the A. D. German Warehouse in Wisconsin and Aline Barnsdall Hollyhock House in Hollywood, the Ennis House is sometimes referred to as an example of the Mayan Revival architecture. Its prominent detail is the relief ornamentation on its 27,000 perforated and patterned decomposed granite blocks, inspired by the symmetrical reliefs of Puuc architecture in Uxmal.</p><br>
<p>The Ennis House is a designated city, state, and national landmark. From 2011 until 2019, it was owned by billionaire Ronald Burkle, during which time significant repairs and renovations were made. The house sold for US$18 million in 2019 to couple Robert Rosenheck and Cindy Capobianco, cannabis industry professionals and philanthropists.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house consists of two buildings, the main house and a smaller chauffeur&#39;s apartment/garage, separated by a paved courtyard. Unlike the vertical orientation of the other three block houses, the Ennis House has a long horizontal loggia spine on the northern side, connecting public and private rooms to the south, and is very large at 6,200 ft&sup2;. The kitchen, pantry, guest room, dining room, living room, master bathroom and bedroom, upper terrace, and second bathroom and bedroom are at the eastern and lower end of the main building.</p><br>
<p>Construction difficulties brought up costs. Initially supervised by Frank Lloyd Wrights son Lloyd Wright, the owners took over construction supervision after the superstructure reached the windows. They carried out various changes, deviating from Wrights original design.</p><br>
<p>In 1940, the house was sold to media personality John Nesbitt, who had Wright add a pool on the north terrace, a billiard room on the ground floor, and a heating system.</p><br>
<p>Although originally and currently known as the Ennis House, the building was long known as the Ennis-Brown House, which became its name in 1980 &mdash; in appreciation of its donation to the Trust for Preservation of Cultural Heritage by Augustus O. Brown, the eighth owner of the house (1968–1980). In August 2005, the house was returned to its original name, and the Trust for Preservation of Cultural Heritage was renamed the Ennis House Foundation.</p><br>
<p>It was during the long ownership by the Foundation from 1980 to 2011 that the house was used as a filming location, establishing it as one of the most famous houses in Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>On June 19, 2009, the Ennis House Foundation announced that the house was being offered for sale with an asking price of US$15 million. Finding no buyers in a down economy, the price was steadily reduced, until it was sold to business executive Ron Burkle for just under $4.5 million on July 14, 2011. A condition of the sale is an easement that allows public viewing 12 days per year, a condition binding on subsequent buyers. By December 2018, it was listed for sale at $23 million. In 2019, Burkle sold the house for $18 million.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Even before its completion the Ennis House was marked by structural instability. Concrete blocks had cracked and lower sections of the walls buckled under tension. The use of decomposed granite from the site to color the textile blocks introduced natural impurities to the concrete mix, and combined with air pollution caused premature decay. Attempts to apply a protective coating caused additional problems.</p><br>
<p>More damage occurred due to the 1994 Northridge earthquake and the record precipitation during the 2004–2005 rainy season. The Ennis House Foundation had estimated that it could cost US$5 million just to stabilize the building, and US$15 million for full restoration. After the rains the building was briefly red-tagged as "no entry" but was down graded to yellow- for limited entry by late 2005. At that point significant damage to the retaining wall at the southern rear of the building remained. In 2005 the house was added to the National Trust for Historic Preservation&#39;s list of the "11 Most Endangered Historic Places".</p><br>
<p>In 2006 a Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) grant was issued, as well as a US$4.5 million construction loan through First Republic Bank, which restarted restoration efforts. The project included a new structural support system, restoration or replacement of damaged blocks, restoration of windows, and a new roof. Restoration work was completed in 2007 at a cost of nearly US$6.4 million. No announcement was made regarding access by the public and the Ennis House remains closed to public visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Use in film productions</h2><br>
<p>The building&#39;s exotic design has made it an appealing location for Hollywood filmmakers.</p><br>
<p>Although used as a shooting location as early as 1933 (Female), the house first acquired morbid fame providing the exterior facade for House on Haunted Hill, a 1959 B movie. The 1975 film The Day of the Locust made extensive use of the house as a private residence, but it was in 1982s Blade Runner that the house gained a popularity of its own among moviegoers; only the main characters arrival at the motor court was actually shot at the Ennis House, but casts were taken of the textile blocks and these were used to construct interior sets on soundstages. Its exterior also appears as "The Mansion" occupied by Angelus, Spike, and Drusilla in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.</p><br>
<p>Sections of the cathedral reminiscent interior, especially the elevated dining room and fireplace, have appeared in over a dozen films including The Karate Kid Part III revealing the view of downtown Los Angeles, Black Rain, The Glimmer Man, The Replacement Killers, Rush Hour substituting for a floor of a Hong Kong skyscraper, and The Thirteenth Floor.</p><br>
<p>The house has also been used as a location for commercials, fashion magazine shoots and music videos, including 3Ts "Why" featuring Michael Jackson. S Club 7s video for the single "Have You Ever" shows the band members living an everyday life in the house. Ricky Martin&#39;s music video for "Vuelve" also features it.</p><br>
<p>Impressed by the house, filmmakers either recreated original elements of the Ennis House on sound stage sets or vaguely imitated these as in Predator 2 and several episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation. After shooting the exterior scene on location for Blade Runner, the interior of Deckard&#39;s apartment was created at Warner Brothers. In the case of The Rocketeer, sections of the Ennis House were recreated in detail, including the patterned art glass, on a studio set. The Rocketeer went as far as adding an upper floor. On a smaller scale, tile casts of the block relief ornamentation were used for the Club Silencio doorframe in Mulholland Drive. David Lynch used the interiors of Ennis House for a few segments of the show Twin Peaks in the soap opera show-within-a-show called Invitation to Love. The house has also appeared in the 2019 mini-series I Am the Night.</p><br>
<p>A cartoon representation is featured in South Park as the base of a Chinese gang in the episode "Wing", satirizing the popular association of the Ennis House with criminal and/or Asian characters in films. Ennis House is also represented in cartoon series "The Venture Bros." as super villain The Monarch&#39;s house in season 4.</p><br>
<p>Because the house is situated in a densely populated neighborhood, tensions have arisen over the years in regard to film production crews, as well as the streams of tourists and restoration construction workers.</p><br>
<p>A film documenting the house, called The Ennis House, was shot in hi definition digital 3D by film maker Tom Koester. It covers the construction (briefly), a grand tour of the house (closed to the public), and the damage stemming from the 1994 earthquake and the subsequent restoration and repair prior to the sale of the house to its current private owner. An early cut of the film premiered at the Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy Conference in Chicago, October 2007, but has had few public showings. It is available on DVD in both 2D and 3D versions.</p><br>
<p>The Ennis House was also featured in the Thirty Seconds to Mars rock bands&#39; documentary Artifact, and is where part of their album This Is War was recorded.</p><br>
<h2>Landmark status</h2><br>
<p>The house was included as one of the top ten houses of all time in Los Angeles Times, in a survey of experts in December 2008, and is listed on the Department of the Interior, National Register of Historic Places, and the National Trust for Historic Preservation list of Endangered Historic Places, and is a designated California Historical Landmark, and a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument.</p><br>
<p>California Historical Landmark Marker NO. 1011 at the site reads:</p><br>
<p>"NO. 1011 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT TEXTILE BLOCK HOUSES (THEMATIC), ENNIS HOUSE - This house was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and built in 1924 for Charles and Mabel Ennis. It is one of four textile block houses registered as Landmark No. 1011."</p><br>
<p>The Law School at the College of New Jersey  was a department of Princeton University from 1847 until 1852. It began instruction in 1847 as a modest effort consisting of three professors: Joseph Coerten Hornblower, Richard Stockton Field, and James S. Green. Only seven students obtained a law degree before the school closed in 1852. The short-lived experiment was the furthest the university got in a recurring ambition, marked by varying levels of effort, to establish a law school. Previously, in the 1820s, an attempt was made to organize teaching in law, but this plan ended following the death of the designated professor.</p><br>
<p>In 1935, the university once again formed appreciable plans for the start of a law school but was unable to secure a faculty. In 1974, then president of Princeton, William G. Bowen, selected a committee to investigate and advise on the achievability of a law school. The committee recommended plans for a law school be deferred after citing high construction costs. Princeton, Brown, and Dartmouth are the only Ivy League schools to lack a law school.</p><br>
<h2>Mistaken and fictional references</h2><br>
<p>At a press conference of law school deans in 1998 decrying the annual US News Law School Rankings, then New York University School of Law Dean John Sexton quipped, "If they were asked about Princeton Law School, it would appear on the top 20 -- but it doesn&#39;t exist" Sexton was denouncing the US News usage of reputation survey results from judges, lawyers and law school deans in its ranking formula, expressing doubt over the expertise of some surveyed.</p><br>
<p>A 2003 National Review Online commentary blundered when the author, Candace de Russy, identified the law school at Princeton as real: "These yearnings are embodied in a doctrine called ‘transnational progressivism,’ which is gaining prominence in law schools, for example, at Princeton and Rutgers".</p><br>
<p>Similarly, during the Senate Judiciary Committee vote for Supreme Court nominee Samuel Alito, Sen. Richard Durbin attested that now Justice Alito hailed from "Princeton Law." Alito attended Princeton University for his undergraduate studies, but received his law degree from Yale Law School. Both de Russy and Durbin became cases in point for Sexton&#39;s comments, since the former is an academic holding a PhD, while the latter holds a Juris Doctor (JD) from Georgetown University Law Center.</p><br>
<p>Princeton University does award honorary degrees of law. Sonia Sotomayor, then Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and later Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, received an Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Princeton University.</p><br>
<h2>Notable faculty</h2><br>
<p>Joseph Coerten Hornblower</p><br>
<p>The Park–McCullough Historic Governor&#39;s Mansion is one of the best-preserved Victorian mansions in New England. It is a thirty-five room mansion, set on 200 acres  of grounds, and located off Vermont Route 67A in North Bennington, Vermont.</p><br>
<p>The house was built in 1864–65 by attorney and entrepreneur Trenor W. Park (1823–1882), who was born in nearby Woodford, Vermont but amassed his fortune overseeing the mining interests of John C. Fremont in California. It was designed by Henry Dudley, a prolific New York architect of the popular firm of Diaper and Dudley. The house cost $75,000 and the family moved in on Christmas Day, 1865. His descendants made extensive renovations to the house in 1889–90, largely in order to entertain President Benjamin Harrison who had come to town to dedicate the new Bennington Battle Monument.</p><br>
<p>The Park–McCullough Historic Governor&#39;s Mansion is an important example of an American country house in the Second Empire Style. It also incorporates architectural features of the Romantic Revival style popular at the time.</p><br>
<p>The house is now owned by a non-profit organization and is open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Family history</h2><br>
<h3>Trenor William Park</h3><br>
<p>Trenor William Park was born outside Bennington, Vermont in Woodford, Vermont on December 8, 1823. His family was not wealthy while he was growing up. By the age of 16, Trenor was already studying law and subsequently, was admitted to the Vermont bar at age 21. He married Vermont Governor Hiland Hall&#39;s daughter, Laura V.S. Hall, on December 15, 1846. They had three children together: Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938), Laura “Lila” or “Birdie” Hall Park (1858–1939), and Trenor “Train” Luther Park (1861–1907).</p><br>
<p>Trenor, Laura, and Lizzie traveled to San Francisco in 1852, following Hiland Hall, who had been appointed California Land Commissioner. Trenor joined the law firm of Halleck, Peachy & Billings, but later opened a law firm of his own. He found great success in the West, managing the Mariposa mines for John C. Fremont. The Park (and McCullough) fortunes also encompassed other international ventures, including banking and railroads. At one time Trenor served as president of the Panama Canal Railway, and he founded the First National Bank of North Bennington, Vermont.</p><br>
<p>The family returned to North Bennington, Vermont in 1863. Construction began on the “Big House,” as it was affectionately called, between 1864 and 1865.</p><br>
<p>Trenor William Park ran for vice-president of the United States in 1864. On his death left $10,000 to Harvard University.</p><br>
<h3>Trenor Luther Park</h3><br>
<p>Trenor William Park&#39;s son, Trenor "Train" Luther Park (1861–1907), married Julia Hunt Catlin. He was a Harvard graduate and importer of silks. He was a commodore of the New York Yacht club and won the Roosevelt Cup in sailing. He and Julia sailed across the Atlantic 75 times. His mansion, named "Hill Crest", was built in the late 1890s in Purchase, New York, and is now the Old Oaks Country Club.</p><br>
<p>Trenor and Julia had three children: Julia (died aged 3 days), Elliot Edith (died aged 10, by falling through a plate glass roof in New York City), and Frances. Trenor died in 1907, six months after losing his daughter. After his death, Julia and Frances moved to a house in Paris, France, and bought the Chateau dAnnel in the north. Frances later married surgeon E. Gerald Stanley, whom she met at her mothers chateau during World War I, and they had five children.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, Julia turned the Chateau d&#39;Annel into a hospital on the front lines. In 1917, she was the first American woman to be awarded the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre in France in honor of her wartime efforts.</p><br>
<p>Julia went on to marry the governor of New Yorks nephew, Chauncey Mitchell Depew, then after a divorce, she married General Adolphe Emile Taufflieb. She died, in 1947, at her residence in Cannes, France, "Villa Nevada". Coincidentally, it was the same residence where Queen Victorias son, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, had died in 1884.</p><br>
<h3>Eliza Hall Park</h3><br>
<p>Trenor William Park&#39;s older daughter, Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938), married John G. McCullough on August 30, 1871. McCullough was born in 1835 in Newark, Delaware. He began a law practice in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and later opened another office in Mariposa County, California. Together, Lizzie and John had four children, Hall Park McCullough (1872–1966), Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson (1873–1965), Ella Sallie Park McCullough (or Sister Mary Veronica, 1874–1965), and Esther Morgan Park McCullough (1888–1957). He was elected governor of Vermont in 1902.</p><br>
<p>In 1875, after the death of her mother, Lizzie became the caretaker of the house. Her father died in 1882, and Lizzie bought out the stake her siblings had in the home to become the sole owner along with her husband; she paid Laura and Trenor $23,333 each. After her husband&#39;s death in 1915, Lizzie oversaw the house until she died in 1938.</p><br>
<p>Even though her son, Hall Park McCullough, inherited the house, it was her daughter, Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson, who resided in the house until her death in 1965. None of the remaining descendants resided in the house after Besss death. John G. McCullough II (Hall Park McCulloughs son and Bess&#39;s nephew) inherited the house in 1966 and in 1968 offered the property to the Park–McCullough House Association.</p><br>
<h2>The "Big House"</h2><br>
<p>Trenor Park purchased the land the house sits on in North Bennington, Vermont from his father-in-law, Hiland Hall. The “Big House” was under construction from 1864 to 1865, on a property of almost 200 acre, and was designed by New York architectural firm Diaper and Dudley. The house was built in the Second Empire style. Over time, the total amount of land owned by the family topped 600 acre! It was originally built as a summer cottage/retreat from their New York home. The family occupied the house most likely from May or June to September or October, and occasionally spent the winter holidays at the house. From 1865 through 1965, the house was occupied by four generations of the Hall, Park, and McCullough families. The Park family moved into the “Big House” on December 25, 1865. As the lady of the house, Laura was responsible for purchasing the furnishings in the house.</p><br>
<p>The style of the house borrows from many different styles, including Second Empire and Gothic. The house is quite revolutionary for the time because there was indoor plumbing, hot and cold water, and gas lighting. Because of the hazard the gas machine posed, the Park&#39;s insurance was cancelled. Only some of the fixtures were converted to electricity around 1910. Most rooms contained fireplaces which provided heat, but if that was not enough, there was a steam boiler, located in the basement, which heated air and rose to the first and second floors.</p><br>
<p>Diaper and Dudley also designed the Carriage Barn, which was built between 1865 and 1866. It was renovated many years later to make room for automobiles, and included hardwood floors and new partitions. The Park&#39;s dog, Abe, occupied the dog house located to the east of the main entrance. It was turned into a play house in its current location, complete with a kitchen (with a wood stove and furniture) and details similar to those in the “Big House”.</p><br>
<p>What once was part of the apartment occupied by Hiland Hall and his wife is now a sitting room right above the staircase on the second floor. This renovation was made around 1889–1890. This was the first of many renovations made to the home after Lizzie and John became masters of the home. President Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901) stayed at the home in August 1891 for the celebration of the dedication of the Bennington Battle Monument. Lizzie and John introduced the Colonial Revival architecture style to the house in 1889 in preparation for the President, when the renovations were made to the front hall. The main hall is 75 ft long, and includes a large fireplace and inglenook bench. The parquet floor, fireplace, and inglenook bench were installed in 1891 prior to the visit from the President. The wallpaper that still covers the walls dates to that renovation. Even though many renovations have taken place over the years that the family occupied the house, the Park–McCullough house is one of the best preserved Victorian mansions in New England. It still largely retains the original design of the house, including original pieces owned and used by the family over one hundred years.</p><br>
<p>When the family first moved into the house, Lizzie chose for herself the bedroom that would be hers for the entire time she lived in the house. It is located right off the master bedroom that her parents slept in, and when she married John G. McCullough, the couple continued to live in her childhood bedroom. The “Big House” boasts 14 chimneys and 35 rooms – 20 of which are bedrooms. When first built, the house contained 18 coal burning fireplaces, all of which were constructed out of Italian (not Vermont) marble. To keep up with the changing styles of the time, the fireplaces located in the library, main and west halls were converted to wood burning. The house has two entrances, one for those who arrived by carriage (which is located on the South) and one for those that had walked to the house (located on the East). When entering the house from the South, guests are welcomed by a bust of Hiland Hall, placed on the mantle of the fireplace. Rooms on the first floor include the Morning, Library, Music, Dining and Billiard rooms, which all have entrances to the long hallway. The lady of the house used the Morning room to meet with house staff or write letters. The Library is also known as the gentlemens parlor, which was used as an office by Trenor Park and by John G. McCullough during his tenure as Governor. After the death of John, Lizzie changed the space to another sitting room. The Music room served as a venue for visits from guests, which lasted only 20 minutes. The dining room table is thought to have been used by the McCulloughs in their New York home. The room also has a smaller, circular table near the widows used for more informal meals.</p><br>
<p>The billiard room contained many luxurious and high-tech gadgets, including a billiard table which reportedly cost $803 (made around 1875) and an elevator that ran between the first and second floors, which was installed in 1930 by Lizzie. There is only one bedroom on the second floor that did not have access to a bathroom, and as such, a hole was cut in the wall to make a door and provide access to a bathroom on a lower floor. This bedroom was occupied at one time by Esther Morgan Park McCullough, Lizzie&#39;s daughter</p><br>
<p>Part of the west wing of the house was removed around 1940. Rooms that were contained in this section included the original kitchen and sections of the servants’ living area. Over time, the McCullough&#39;s changed their gardens (surrounding the grounds) around, and at one point, converted them into a tennis court.</p><br>
<h2>The Park–McCullough House Association</h2><br>
<p>The Park–McCullough House Association, which was offered the house by John G. McCullough II, was formed in 1968. It is a non-profit charitable/membership corporation, which is governed by a Board of Trustees, and requires full and part-time employees and volunteers. The Association sponsors educational programs that are suitable for both adults and children, tours of the home, and hosts many special events at the property. In 1972, the “Big House” was placed on the National Register of Historic Sites. The Association formally received deeds to the property in 1975 and 1984.</p><br>
<p>The Titan Missile Museum, also known as Air Force Facility Missile Site 8 or as Titan II ICBM Site 571-7, is a former ICBM  site located about 40 km south of Tucson, Arizona in the United States. It was constructed in 1963 and deactivated in 1984. It is now a museum run by the nonprofit Arizona Aerospace Foundation and includes an inert Titan II missile in the silo, as well as the original launch facilities.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1994. It is the only Titan II complex to survive from the late Cold War period.</p><br>
<p>It remains as the only location in the country where visitors can view an entirely preserved ICBM.</p><br>
<h2>Underground facilities</h2><br>
<p>The underground facilities consist of a three-level Launch Control Center, the eight level silo containing the missile and its related equipment, and the connecting structures of cableways (access tunnels), blast locks, and the access portal and equipment elevator. The complex was built of steel reinforced concrete with walls as much as 8 ft in some areas, and a number of 3-ton blast doors sealed the various areas from the surface and each other.</p><br>
<p>The top level of the silo permits viewing the silo missile doors. Level 3 houses a large diesel generator. Level 7 provides access to the lowest part of the launch duct. Visitors on the "Beyond the Blast Doors" tour are allowed to stand directly underneath the missile. Level 8, at 140 ft underground, houses the propellant pumps.</p><br>
<h2>Titan II missile</h2><br>
<p>The 103 ft Titan II missile inside the silo has neither warhead nor fuel, allowing it to be safely displayed to visitors. In accordance with a US/USSR agreement, the silo doors are permanently blocked from opening more than half way. The dummy reentry vehicle mounted on the missile has a prominent hole cut in it to prove it is inert. All the support facilities at the site remain intact, complete with all of their original equipment.</p><br>
<p>The silo became operational in 1963 and was deactivated in 1984 as part of President Reagan&#39;s policy (announced in 1981) of decommissioning the Titan II missiles as part of a weapon systems modernization program. All operational Titan II silos throughout the country were demolished, including 18 sites around McConnell AFB in Wichita, Kansas, 17 sites near Little Rock AFB, Arkansas (one additional site previously damaged beyond repair in a mishap/non-nuclear explosion) and 17 other sites by Davis-Monthan AFB and Tucson except for this one. It is now a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Yield and warhead</h2><br>
<p>The Titan II was the largest operational land based nuclear missile ever used by the United States. The missile had one W53 warhead with a yield of 9 Megatons (9,000 kilotons).</p><br>
<p>At launch, orders from the National Command Authority would have specified one of three pre-programmed targets which, for security reasons, were unknown to the crew. The missile base that is now the Titan Missile Museum (complex 571-7 of the 390th Strategic Missile Wing) was, at the time of closure, programmed to strike "Target Two". The missile&#39;s computer could hold up to three targets, and the target selected was determined by Strategic Air Command headquarters. To change the selected target, the crew commander pressed the appropriate button on the launch console. Target 2, which is classified to this day but was assumed to be within the borders of the former Soviet Union, was designated as a ground burst, suggesting that the target was a hardened facility such as a Soviet missile base. Targets could be selected for air or ground burst, but the selection was determined by Strategic Air Command.</p><br>
<h2>Tourist attractions</h2><br>
<p>The Titan Missile Museum is located at 1580 West Duval Mine Road, Sahuarita, on I-19.</p><br>
<p>A visitor center for the site features a gift shop, a small museum and guided tours of the site. The museum is intended to put the Titan II within the context of the Cold War. Paid tours are available for hire, offering education about the history of the Titan II site and program, as well as a closer look at many features of the complex. Relics include hardstands for fuel storage containers and the associated control vehicles, restored engines from a Titan II missile, and a re-entry vehicle.</p><br>
<p>Tours below ground may include the control room, the cableways (tunnels), the silo, antenna tower and more. More information can be found and reservations may be made via the museum website. Several times each month, a more extensive "top to bottom" tour is available. This tour takes up to 5 hours and accommodates a maximum of six people. Prior reservations required. The top-to-bottom tour is not handicapped accessible.</p><br>
<p>Several scenes in the 1996 film Star Trek: First Contact were shot at the site. The missile itself was depicted as the launch vehicle for the film&#39;s Phoenix spacecraft, the first warp prototype.</p><br>
<p>The Lightner Museum is a museum of antiques, mostly American Gilded Age pieces, housed within the historic Hotel Alcazar building in downtown St. Augustine. This 1887 Spanish Renaissance Revival style building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Hotel Alcazar</h3><br>
<p>The hotel was commissioned by Henry Flagler, to appeal to wealthy tourists who traveled south for the winter on his railroad, the Florida East Coast Railway. It was designed by New York City architects Carrère and Hastings, in the Spanish Renaissance Revival style. The firm also designed the Ponce de León Hotel across the street, now part of the campus of Flagler College. Both structures are notable for being among the earliest examples of poured concrete buildings in the world. These architects later designed the New York Public Library in New York City and the Russell Senate Office Building in Washington, D.C.</p><br>
<p>The hotel had a steam room, massage parlor, sulfur baths, gymnasium, a three-story ballroom, and the world&#39;s largest indoor swimming pool; however, after years as an elegant winter resort for wealthy patrons, the hotel closed in 1932.</p><br>
<p>On August 20, 1947 Chicago publisher Otto C. Lightner purchased the building to convert the old hotel into a hobbies museum. He used the space to house several collections, including his own extensive collection of Victorian era art. He then turned it over to the city of St. Augustine and the museum opened to the public in 1948.</p><br>
<p>The building is an attraction in itself, centering on an open courtyard with palm trees and a stone arch bridge over a koi pond.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum occupies three floors of the former Hotel Alcazar and is housed in the former health facilities of the hotel, including the spa and the Victorian Turkish bath, in addition to its three-story ballroom.</p><br>
<p>The first floor of the museum houses a Victorian Science and Industry Room displays shells, rocks, minerals, and Native American artifacts in beautiful Gilded Age cases, as well as stuffed birds, a small Egyptian mummy, a model steam engine, elaborate examples of Victorian glassblowing, a golden elephant bearing the world on its back, and a shrunken head. Moreover, the first floor contains a music room, filled with mechanized musical instruments—including player pianos, reproducing pianos, orchestrions, and others—dating from the 1870s through the 1920s. It formerly featured a Victorian village, with shop fronts representing emporia selling period wares; this area is now the gift shop.</p><br>
<p>The second floor contains examples of cut glass, Victorian art glass and stained-glass work from Louis Comfort Tiffanys studio. The third floor, in the ballrooms upper balcony, exhibits paintings, sculptures, and furniture, including a grande escritoire created for Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon&#39;s brother and King of Holland between 1806 and 1810.</p><br>
<p>The Ballroom Gallery has oil paintings by Paul Trouillebert (Cleopatra & the Dying Messenger), Léon Comerre (Maid of Honor), and Albert Bierstadt (In the Yosemite). It also has sculptures by Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux and Randolph Rogers.</p><br>
<p>On view from the ballroom&#39;s upper balcony is the now drained swimming pool. The pool now hosts the Cafe Alcazar.</p><br>
<p>The Lightner Museum partners with local tourism initiatives such as Visit Florida and Florida Attractions Association. In 2021, the museum developed a local artists initiative called Lightner Local, with support from the Benjamin and Jean Troemel Arts Foundation, awarding exhibition space for artists who lived in Northeast and Central Florida. The Lightner is a member of Culture Builds Florida, the Division of Arts and Culture for the state of Florida, as well as the St Johns Cultural Council. In 2021, the museum completed improvements to its storage facilities using a $162,000 grant award from the Institute of Museum and Library Services.</p><br>
<p>Karamu House in the Fairfax neighborhood on the east side of Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is the oldest producing Black Theatre in the United States opening in 1915. Many of Langston Hughes&#39;s plays were developed and premiered at the theater.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1915, Russell and Rowena Woodham Jelliffe, graduates of Oberlin College in nearby Oberlin, Ohio, founded what was then called The Neighborhood Association at 2239 E. 38th St. establishing it as a place where people of all races, creeds, and religions could find common ground. The Jelliffes discovered in their early years, that the arts provided the common ground, and in 1917 plays at the "Playhouse Settlement" began.</p><br>
<p>The early twenties saw a large number of African Americans move into an area in Cleveland, from the Southern United States. Resisting pressure to exclude their new neighbors, the Jelliffes insisted that all races were welcome.</p><br>
<p>Reflecting the strength of the Black influence on its development, the Playhouse Settlement was officially renamed Karamu House in 1941. Karamu is a word in the Kiswahili language meaning "a place of joyful gathering".</p><br>
<p>Karamu House had developed a reputation for nurturing black actors having carried on the mission of the Gilpin Players, a black acting troupe whose heyday predated Karamu. Directors such as John Kenley, of the Kenley Players, and John Price, of Musicarnival — a music "tent" theater located in Warrensville Heights, Ohio, a Cleveland suburb — recruited black actors for their professional productions.</p><br>
<p>In 1931, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston were negotiating with the Jelliffes to produce Mule Bone, their two act collaboration, when the two writers "fell out". A series of conversations between the Hughes and Hurston estates, the Ethel Barrymore Theatre presented the world premiere of Mule Bone on Broadway in 1991. Finally, sixty-five years after the production was originally proposed, Karamu House presented Mule Bone (The Bone Of Contention) as the 1996–1997 season finale. Karamus production, directed by Sarah May, played to standing room only audiences in the Proscenium (Jelliffe) Theatre. The by-line in The Plain Dealer, as the Cleveland theatre season came to its end read: "Karamu returns to Harlem Renaissance status". Critic Marianne Evett shared Karamus success story as the theatre began to recover from past hardships. The revival Karamu House needed so desperately had arrived. During this time, playwright and two time Emmy nominee Margaret Ford-Taylor held the position of executive director, and Sarah May, Director in Residence.</p><br>
<p>From October 2003 to March 2016, Terrence Spivey served as Karamu&#39;s artistic director. Tony F. Sias currently serves as CEO + President, Aseelah Shareef serves as COO + Vice President.</p><br>
<h2>Renovations 2017-2021</h2><br>
<p>In 2017, a major renovation of the facility was undertaken. The architect Robert P. Madison International, Ohio&#39;s first African American-owned architectural firm, founded by Cleveland architect Robert P. Madison, lead the 14.5 million dollar renovation. This included a new streetscape, bistro, patio, and enclosed outdoor stage; as well as updates to the Arena Theater, lobby, and dressing rooms.</p><br>
<p>The updates were to be completed in three phases as follows:</p><br>
<p>Phase I - Redesign of the 195 seat Jelliffe Theatre with new roof, lobby, seating, lighting, and wheel chair access.</p><br>
<p>Phase II - Addition of the KeyBank lobby, gift shop, and Anthony (Tony) Smith Gallery, redesign of the Arena Theatre, and cafe.</p><br>
<p>Phase III - Addition of outdoor stage area, patio, cafe, and streetscape.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline</h2><br>
<h2>Identity</h2><br>
<p>Karamu&#39;s mission is to "produce professional theatre, provide arts education and present community programs for all people while honoring the Black experience. We are a place of joyful gathering where people from different races, religions, and economic backgrounds come together through the arts." In recent years, the mission was updated from "African-American" to "Black" to be more inclusive the Black experience throughout the diaspora.</p><br>
<h2>Langston Hughes involvement</h2><br>
<p>Langston Hughes had a special relationship with Karamu Theatre and the years 1936-1939 have been called the "Hughes Era.". Born in St. Louis, Hughes early life moved to Cleveland, where he attended Karamu programs and classes; after he left Ohio, he kept in touch with the director, Rowena Jelliffe, and the Gilpin Players, who produced a number of his plays, including the premiers of When the Jack Hollars (1936), Troubled Island (1936), and Joy to My Soul Once, Hughes even said, "if at time I can be of any use, if I can give for you a public (or private) talk or reading, or in any way help to raise money locally, I will be only too happy to do so." In an interview with Reuben Silver of Karamu, Hughes said: "It is a cultural shame that a great country like America, with twenty million people of color, has no primarily serious colored theatre. There isnt. Karamu is the very nearest thing to it...It not only should a Negro theatre, if we want to use that term, do plays by and about Negroes, but it should do plays slanted toward the community in which it exists. It should be in a primarily Negro community since that is the way our racial life in America is still...It should not be a theatre that should be afraid to do a Negro folk play about people who are perhaps not very well-educated because some of the intellectuals, or "intellectuals" in quotes, are ashamed of such material"</p><br>
<p>By 1940, according to his biographer Arnold Rampersad, "Langston consigned all his skits and sketches, divided into three classes—Negro Social, Negro, Negro Non-Social, and white—to his agent, and told him Cafe Society, an interracial cabaret founded in New York by Barney Josephson, was planning a revue. Hughes sent twenty skits, including, Run, Ghost, Run. He also sent a copy to Karamu; there is no record that the revue was staged there or anywhere. Three of those skits appear here in print for the first time. Throughout his life, Hughes added to the program with many short satirical skits.</p><br>
<h2>Recent</h2><br>
<p>Karamu offers art experiences for people of all ages through a variety of programs. The three primary program areas are the Early Childhood Development Center, the Center of Arts and Education, and the Karamu Performing Arts Theatre.</p><br>
<p>In 2020, Karamu House presented Freedom on Juneteenth, written by Tony F. Sias, Latecia D Wilson, and Mary E Weems; an event commemorating the end of slavery, June 19, 1865, in the United States. Freedom on Juneteenth originally was created to celebrate the music of Bill Withers, but was adapted due to the passing of George Floyd.</p><br>
<h2>Awards</h2><br>
<p>On December 17, 1982, Karamu was listed in the USA National Register of Historic Places, and received an Ohio Historical Marker on June 16, 2003.</p><br>
<p>Karamu also received the "Theater Longevity Award" from the National Black Theater Festival in 2005.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, said that Karamu House is, "...one of the most overlooked success stories in our field."</p><br>
<p>In 2022, Karamu received "The Doors of the Theater are Open" Award from "The Awards" formerly known as the Antonyo&#39;s by.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, Karamu was named the "" by Midwest Living magazine.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Acting</p><br>
<p>Bill Cobbs (born June 16, 1934) - film, television, stage, directing, master workshops</p><br>
<p>Minnie Gentry (1915&ndash;1993) — a Broadway, film and television actress</p><br>
<p>Robert Guillaume (1927 - 2017) — a film, stage and television actor best known for starring — in the late 1970s&ndash;mid 1980s — in the television situation-comedy series Soap and its spin-off series Benson</p><br>
<p>Margaret Ford-Taylor, (born January 6) - film, television, stage, writer, director, two-time Emmy nominee</p><br>
<p>Dick Latessa (born 1929) — a film, stage and television actor who won the 2003 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical for his role in Hairspray</p><br>
<p>Ron O&#39;Neal (1937&ndash;2004) — an actor, film director and screenwriter who appeared in many blaxploitation films in the 1970s</p><br>
<p>Al Kirk, Broadway and Film Actor "Shaft" "Golden Boy" with Sammy Davis Jr.</p><br>
<p>Dave Connell, Broadway and Film Actor "Great White Hope" Five Films also Arena Stage Resident Actor</p><br>
<p>Vaness Bell-Calloway, born in 1956. Vanessa performed in Karamu&#39;s theater and modern dance departments. She earned a spot in the chorus of the Broadway musical, Dream Girls</p><br>
<p>Reyno Crayton (born 8/26/52) performed in numerous Karamu House productions. Additionally, he played Lou Edwards in The Negro Ensemble Production of "The First Breeze of Summer," opening June 1975. In 1975, he won the Clarence Derwent Award and the 1975 OBIE Award, Performance as Lou Edwards in (The First Breeze of Summer).</p><br>
<p>Visual Artists</p><br>
<p>Charles L. Sallée Jr. (1913-2006) - WPA printmaker, painter and muralist who also worked as an interior designer.</p><br>
<p>William E. Smith (1913-1997) - WPA printmaker, painter and sign designer who was also an art instructor.</p><br>
<p>Playhouse Square is a theater district in downtown Cleveland, Ohio, United States. It is the largest performing arts center in the US outside of New York City . Constructed in a span of 19 months in the early 1920s, the theaters became a major entertainment hub for the city for much of the 20th century. However, by the late 1960s, the district had fallen into decline and its theaters had closed down. In the 1970s, the district was revived through a grassroots effort that helped usher in a new era of downtown revitalization. For this reason, the revival of Playhouse Square is often locally referred to as being "one of the top ten successes in Cleveland history."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Following World War I, local developer Joseph Laronge, who had previously opened the Stillman movie house on East 12th street, envisioned a row of theaters on Euclid Avenue between East 14th and East 17th streets. Laronge and New York City business magnate Marcus Loew, among others, founded a partnership called Loew&#39;s Ohio Theatres to develop the area.</p><br>
<p>The organizations first two theaters, the Ohio and State (now known as the KeyBank State), were designed by eminent architect Thomas W. Lamb in the Italianate style. It was considered essential for the theaters marquees to face Euclid Avenue, but because of space constraints the State Theatre was built at the back of the lot, although its lobby shares the Euclid frontage with the Ohio Theatre. Construction began in 1920, and the pair opened in early February 1921.</p><br>
<p>Across Euclid Avenue, Charles A. Platt&#39;s Hanna Theatre, part of the Hanna Building complex, opened in late March 1921. Although the theater faces East 14th Street, it is still part of Playhouse Square. It was named for the prominent Cleveland Senator Mark Hanna.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the Bulkley Building housing the C. Howard Crane-designed Allen Theatre was being built next door. Completed in early April 1921, Jules and Jay Allens Pompeiian-style theater was sold to Loews in 1922.</p><br>
<p>The last theater to be constructed was the Palace Theatre, now known as the Connor Palace, opening in November 1922 in the Keith Building, which at the time was the tallest in Cleveland. There was a great promotion for the theater&#39;s opening: the</p><br>
<p>largest electric sign in the world was turned on to show that the Palace was open for business. Built by Edward F. Albee in honor of his friend and business partner, B.F.Keith, the Palace was billed as the “Showplace of the World.” Headlining the opener was Americas favorite mimic, Elsie Janis, who shared billing with Eduardo Cansino, Rita Hayworths father. Albee invested over $2 million in the vaudeville venue, which became known as the “…swankiest theater in the country.”</p><br>
<p>Designed by the Chicago architectural firm of Rapp and Rapp, the Palace was a regional flagship of the Keith-Albee chain of vaudeville theaters.</p><br>
<p>The area surrounding the theaters soon became known unofficially as “Playhouse Square.” The Euclid Square Association, a civic group, tried to rename the district “Euclid Square,” although these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. The area is now officially designated as "Playhouse Square."</p><br>
<h3>Closing and rebirth</h3><br>
<p>The theaters successfully showed a variety of serious theater, vaudeville shows, and movies for more than forty years. However, during the years following World War II, suburbanization and the rise of television led to the decline of the theaters. Fire broke out in the Ohio in 1964, and the other Playhouse Square theaters were struck by vandalism. Between May 1968 and July 1969, all the theaters closed except the Hanna.</p><br>
<p>Plans to reopen and restore the theaters began almost immediately. In 1970, Raymond K. Shepardson, a Cleveland Public Schools employee, formed a non-profit group named the “Playhouse Square Association” with the Junior League of Cleveland, Inc. The cover of the February 27, 1970 issue of Life was a two-page pull-out of James H. Daughertys The Spirit of Cinema America, a mural in the State Theatres lobby.</p><br>
<p>Plans to raze the Ohio and the State Theatres in 1972 and 1977 caused a public outcry, and in 1973 the newly formed Playhouse Square Foundation obtained long-term leases for the Palace, Ohio and State Theatres, while Cuyahoga County commissioners purchased the Loews Building. Also in 1973, the musical revue Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and Living in Paris opened in the State Theatre lobby. Expected to run two weeks, the show instead played for two and a half years. In 1978, Playhouse Square was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Renovation</h3><br>
<p>Emboldened by the unprecedented success of Jacques Brel, restoration of the theaters began in earnest. Various public-private partnerships collected some $40 million for the project.</p><br>
<p>Because of extensive fire damage, the Ohio Theatre was originally intended to be the last of the theaters to undergo renovation, but those plans were accelerated so that the theater could become the home of the Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival, now Great Lakes Theater. The $4 million project was begun at the end of 1981 and completed in less than nine months. Work began on the State Theatre in May 1979, and was completed in the summer of 1984, after the addition of a new $7 million stagehouse. Renovation of the theater&#39;s three lobbies was completed in 1987. Restoration of the Palace Theatre began in 1987, and was finished the following year. As part of the project, expanded parking facilities were added to the complex.</p><br>
<p>Reconstruction of the Allen Theatre lagged behind the rest, partly because some felt that three theaters were enough for the district. However, in 1993 the Playhouse Square Foundation agreed to rent the theater with the intention of purchasing it, which it did in 1997. This acquisition made Playhouse Square the largest performing arts complex outside of New York in the United States, with more than 10,000 seats. The Allen re-opened in 1998.</p><br>
<p>Although the Hanna Theatre was the only one of the group not to close in 1968 or 1969, it was overshadowed by the revitalization of the Euclid Avenue theaters during the 1980s, and closed in 1989. However, the Hanna reopened in March 1996 – the 75th anniversary of its original opening. In 1999, the Playhouse Square Foundation acquired the Hanna, making it the fifth and last of the original theaters to be purchased by the foundation.</p><br>
<p>The Cleveland Theater District Development Corporation (CTDDC), now the Playhouse Square District Development Corporation (PDDC), was established in 1998 as a business improvement district to foster development in the theater district.</p><br>
<h3>Recent</h3><br>
<p>The reopening of the State, Ohio and Palace Theatres encouraged further development at Playhouse Square, including the $40 million Renaissance Office Building and a Wyndham Hotel at Playhouse Square.</p><br>
<p>In an unprecedented move for a not-for-profit performing arts center, Playhouse Square established a Real Estate Services Division in 1999 to support the organization&#39;s arts operations. Playhouse Square is active in area development in order to give visitors a lively, welcoming and entertaining destination, while also creating a neighborhood with a robust business environment.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, Playhouse Square opened the 14th Street Theatre as a home for Second City Cleveland and a venue for improvisational comedy, musical comedy and avant-garde fare, often for extended runs. The venue was closed in 2013 and transformed into the private dining space Cibreo Privato, part of the Italian restaurant Cibreo operated by Driftwood Restaurant Group.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the area of East 14th Street near Playhouse Square was renamed Memory Lane-Bob Hope Way in honor of the longtime Cleveland resident to commemorate the entertainer&#39;s 100th birthday.</p><br>
<p>Playhouse Square and Clevelands public broadcasting stations conducted a joint capital campaign to transform the One Playhouse Square Building into the Idea Center at Playhouse Square. Opened in 2005, it is now the home for Playhouse Squares community engagement and education programs and the downtown headquarters for radio stations WKSU (simulcast over a regional network including WCPN) and WCLV, as well as TV station WVIZ, incorporated together as Ideastream Public Media.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, the HealthLine opened with a station at Playhouse Square. The line connects Public Square to University Circle via the Cleveland Clinic.</p><br>
<p>Also in 2008, the Hanna Theatre underwent a thorough renovation with improvements to its stage including a new hydraulic lift system. The Hanna is now home to Great Lakes Theater, Cleveland&#39;s classic theater company which previously performed at the Ohio Theatre.</p><br>
<p>Through a collaboration called “The Power of Three,” Cleveland Play House, Cleveland State University and Playhouse Square partnered to create the Allen Theatre Complex, featuring a reconfigured Allen Theatre (re-opened 2011) and two new theaters that opened in 2012. Cleveland Play House and Cleveland State Universitys Department of Theatre and Dance are now resident companies at Playhouse Square. The Cleveland Play House administrative offices and all of Cleveland State Universitys arts programs are now located in the Middough Building on Playhouse Square&#39;s campus, adding to the vibrancy of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Playhouse Square welcomes more than 1 million guests to 1,000+ performances and events each year. Its KeyBank Broadway Series season ticket holder base (more than 45,000) is the largest in the country, making Cleveland one of fewer than 10 markets that can support a three-week run of a touring Broadway show.</p><br>
<p>Improvements to the Playhouse Square neighborhood - including a digital signage network, upgrades to USA Bank Plaza, a retro signage feature and the GE Chandelier, the world&#39;s largest outdoor chandelier, located above the intersection of Euclid Avenue and East 14th Street - were completed between April 2013 and April 2014, culminating in a ceremony on May 2, 2014, entitled "Dazzle the District." In 2014 a $100 million capital fund campaign was initiated with a $9 million gift from the Chris Connor family of Cleveland. In honor of their gift the Palace Theatre was renamed Connor Palace. In honor of a $10 million gift from KeyBank in 2017, the State Theatre was renamed KeyBank State Theatre.</p><br>
<p>In April 2018 Playhouse Square began construction on The Lumen, a 34-story apartment tower. The tower adds 318 apartments to downtown Cleveland and contains a 550 space parking garage. The Tower opened in 2020.</p><br>
<h2>List of theaters</h2><br>
<p>Allen Theatre</p><br>
<p>Connor Palace</p><br>
<p>Hanna Theatre</p><br>
<p>The Helen Rosenfeld Lewis Bialosky Lab Theatre</p><br>
<p>Kennedy&#39;s Cabaret</p><br>
<p>KeyBank State Theatre</p><br>
<p>Mimi Ohio Theatre</p><br>
<p>Outcalt Theatre</p><br>
<p>Upper Allen</p><br>
<p>Westfield Studio Theatre</p><br>
<h2>List of resident companies</h2><br>
<p>Cleveland Ballet</p><br>
<p>Cleveland Play House (Allen Theatre)</p><br>
<p>Cleveland State University Department of Theatre and Dance (Allen Theatre)</p><br>
<p>DANCECleveland</p><br>
<p>Great Lakes Theater (Hanna Theatre)</p><br>
<p>Tri-C Jazz Fest</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral Church of St. Paul, Boston is the historic cathedral church of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. Located at 138 Tremont Street near Downtown Crossing, directly across from Boston Common and Park Street Station, the cathedral is adjacent to the diocesan offices. On April 22, 2018, Amy E McCreath was named the ninth dean and first female dean of the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, and was installed as dean on September 29, 2018. The church, designed by Alexander Parris and Solomon Willard and built in 1819, was the first Greek Revival church in New England, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance.</p><br>
<h2>19th century</h2><br>
<p>Unusually for that time, for a church building, St. Paul&#39;s was built in the Greek revival style. Its architects were Alexander Parris, best known for Quincy Market, and Solomon Willard, best known for the Bunker Hill Monument. Its granite exterior and sandstone temple front have changed little since its construction. A carving of St. Paul preaching before King Agrippa II was intended to be placed in the pediment over the entrance but was never executed.</p><br>
<p>Congregants included Daniel Webster.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>In 1912, after its neighborhood had become mainly non-residential, the diocese named St. Pauls as its cathedral. Then its chancel was remodeled with a coffered and gilded half-dome, elaborately carved wood reredos, a chancel organ and choir benches. The new chancels architect was Ralph Adams Cram, known for such landmark Gothic churches as All Saints&#39;, in the Ashmont neighborhood of Boston, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City.</p><br>
<p>From the 1880s to 1980, St. Pauls had a choir of men and boys, who sang introits, hymns and anthems at Sunday morning worship services. Their founding choirmaster was Warren Andrew Locke, concurrently the organist and choirmaster at Harvard University from 1882 to 1910. The choirs final organist and choirmaster was Thomas Murray, who later became University Organist and Professor of Music at Yale University.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The design in the center of the cathedral is The Labyrinth, which is meant to meditate and was modeled after one in Ravenna, Italy. The stones that make up the outside of the building were from St Pauls Cathedrals in London and St. Botolphs in Boston, England. In 2014, the Cathedral began extensive interior renovations which were complete during the fall of 2015. During this time the skylights on the ceiling were added for natural light, the curving ramp surrounding the altar was made accessible, and stained glass windows and other features were remodeled inside the chapel. Additionally, the Cathedrals pews were removed so that worship could be centered around the altar, which was moved to the center of the space.</p><br>
<h2>Ministers</h2><br>
<p>, 1820–1825</p><br>
<p>Alonzo Potter, 1826–1831</p><br>
<p>John S. Stone, 1832–1841</p><br>
<p>Alexander Vinton, 1842–1858</p><br>
<p>William Nicholson, c. 1860s</p><br>
<p>Treadwell Walden, 1873</p><br>
<p>William Newton, 1877–1882</p><br>
<p>Frederick Courtney, 1882 accepts call to be the eight rector</p><br>
<p>John Summerfield Lindsey, 1889 ninth rector</p><br>
<p>Thomas Augustus Jaggar, 1906 tenth rector</p><br>
<p>William Faulkerner, 1908 eleventh rector</p><br>
<p>Edmund Swett Rousmaniere, 1909 installed as the twelfth and final rector, and named as the first Dean of the Cathedral 1912</p><br>
<p>Philemon Fowler Sturges, 1926 named as the second Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>Edwin Jan Van Etten, 1940 the third Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>Charles Henry Buck, 1953 the fourth Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>John Bowen Coburn, 1980, elected fifth Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>Thomas Kennedy, 1985 sixth Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>David Elliot Johnson, 1986 named himself seventh Dean of the Cathedral,</p><br>
<p>Jep Streit, 1996 installed as the eight Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>Amy E. McCreath, 2018 installed as the ninth, and first female Dean of the Cathedral</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral Church of St. Paul is the cathedral church of the Episcopal Diocese of Michigan. In 1824 its congregation formed as the first Episcopal and first Protestant church in the Michigan Territory.</p><br>
<p>Designed by architect Ralph Adams Cram and constructed in 1907, this building is located at 4800 Woodward Avenue in Midtown Detroit, Michigan, adjacent to the campus of Wayne State University. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The parish of St. Paul was founded in 1824, by the Rev. Richard Fish Cadle, as the first Episcopal and the first Protestant congregation in what was then Michigan Territory. The original site of St. Paul&#39;s church was on Woodward Avenue, between Congress and Larned. In 1851 the church moved to the corner of Congress at Shelby.</p><br>
<p>The funeral service for Henry Ford, the entrepreneur who catalyzed development of the automobile industry in Detroit, was held at Cathedral Church of St. Paul on Thursday, April 10, 1947. Mourners passed by at a rate of 5,000 each hour at the public viewing the day before at Ford&#39;s Greenfield Village in Dearborn. At the funeral service, 20,000 people stood outside the Cathedral Church of St. Paul in the rain with 600 inside. The funeral had attracted national attention and an estimated seven million people mourned his death.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The current building, designed by renowned church architect Ralph Adams Cram, dates from 1907. It remains unfinished, the bell tower never having been completed. The church is built of limestone, using medieval construction techniques, with no supporting steel superstructure. The building boasts soaring, pointed arches, wide expanses of stained glass, and elaborate tracery, exemplary of Gothic architecture. It includes a large architectural installation of Pewabic Pottery. In 1912 it was designated as the cathedral of the diocese.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>St. Paul&#39;s Cathedral is a fine example of the Late Gothic Revival, an architectural style popular in the early years of the 20th century. American architects of the mid-19th century imported and re-interpreted the English Gothic Revival style, based on the visually lush details of Medieval cathedrals. This was the period of the Oxford Movement in England, which also influenced Episcopal clergy and congregations in the United States to commission revivals of Medieval styles. American architects copied the "Gothic" elements and combined them with simple building plans to create an American architectural style known as "Victorian Gothic." The Fort Street Presbyterian Church, built in 1876 in Detroit, is a premier example of early Victorian Gothic architecture.</p><br>
<p>In contrast, in the early 20th century more American architects attended new schools at M.I.T. and Columbia, or traveled to France for training at the École des Beaux-Arts. These architects, including Ralph A. Cram, believed that Gothic architecture should be developed from, rather than simply copy, the architecture of Medieval churches. St. Pauls Cathedral is one of Crams major early projects, one that defines his "Late Gothic Revival" style.</p><br>
<h2>Present use</h2><br>
<p>The current dean is the Very Reverend S. Scott Hunter, formerly Canon to the Ordinary of the Diocese of Michigan. The cathedral coordinates programming with the Detroit Cultural Center.</p><br>
<p>The Peirce Mill is a historic mill building located in Rock Creek Park, at Tilden Street and Beach Drive, Northwest, Washington, D.C., United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Issac Peirce, a millwright, built the mill either in 1820 or 1829.</p><br>
<p>Peirce rebuilt this mill according to Oliver Evans&#39;s ideas for milling, with much of the automated machinery on the upper floors. During the 1860s, as many as 12 wagonloads of wheat arrived for grinding. It was possible to grind 70 bushels per day per set of millstones. The last commercial load was ground in 1897, when the main shaft broke while Alcibiades P. White was grinding a load of rye. The building served as a public teahouse until the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>The United States Government bought the mill as part of Rock Creek Park in 1892.</p><br>
<p>Peirce Mill was restored as a Public Works Administration project, completed in March 1936, at a cost of $26,614.</p><br>
<p>Operation began on October 27, 1936, under the supervision of miller Robert A. Little. The mill was used from December 1, 1936 until 1958 to provide flour for government cafeterias, whereupon because of lack of trained millwrights and lack of water in the millrace, it was used only as a historical site.</p><br>
<p>The mill was shut down in April, 1993. In 1997, a restoration effort was begun by the Friends of Peirce Mill (FOPM). The mill was restored with the support of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA). The mill officially reopened in October, 2011. The NPS typically runs mill operation demonstrations on the 2nd and 4th Saturday of each month, April through October.</p><br>
<h2>Facts</h2><br>
<p>The mill has three pairs of millstones. The millstones are 4 1/2 feet across and weigh about 2,400 lbs, and rotate at about 125 rpm. About 60% of the power is used to turn the millstones, the rest for the remaining machinery. The Peirce family themselves were not millers and did not operate the mill, but instead had other millers do so.</p><br>
<h2>Pierce Mill vs. Peirce Mill</h2><br>
<p>There was a "Pierce" (note spelling) mill on the Potomac River, not to be confused with Peirce mill. The other mill (Pierce Mill) is listed in the NPS records and was near Fletcher&#39;s Boathouse.</p><br>
<p>The Jean Bonnet Tavern, also known as Old Forks Inn and Bonnet&#39;s Tavern, is an historic inn and restaurant that is located just outside Bedford, Pennsylvania on USA Highway 30, at the junction with Pennsylvania Route 31. It can be seen from the Pennsylvania Turnpike.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>History and architectural features</h2><br>
<p>The British first recognized the lands as being owned by Robert Callender, a trader with the Native American tribes of Pennsylvania. The land was first documented when the original 690 acre parcel was transferred from the William Penn family to a land speculator named Hans Ireland. It was again transferred to Callender in 1762 and in 1763, the large stone structure was built.</p><br>
<p>The location of the stone structure was intended to be a safe haven for settlers passing through the area as well as the site of a French fort and trading post. The tavern was referenced in the personal journals of many travelers that passed through the area on the way to what they called "Old Shawnese Cabins" which is Shawnee State Park (Pennsylvania) today.</p><br>
<p>The land and the building were purchased by Jean (John) Bonnet in 1779 and opened as an inn and tavern, which was used as a gathering place by protesting local farmers during the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion. Protesting the federal tax on whisky, local Pennsylvanian farmers gathered to raise a Liberty pole at the tavern as a symbol of their defiance. The protests were suppressed months later by forces under President George Washington.</p><br>
<p>Although the building has changed hands many times through the years, mostly maintained as a tavern and inn although in some owners converted into a private residence, the Bonnett Family of West Virginia are the direct descendants of Jean Bonnet and trace their family history back nearly 400 years. In 1957 the Jean Bonnet was purchased by the Enyeart family. During their ownership, the stores of paranormal events in the building began being publicized. Local folklore of guests and employees of the Inn reference seeing a lone figure roaming the building and drinking at the tavern bar. Said to be the ghost of Bonnet and is a popular topic of discussion and adds to the allure of the inn.</p><br>
<p>It is a 2 1/2 to 3 1/2-story building, which measures 40 feet by 51 feet. It was built using native cut fieldstone, and features two levels of porches that extend the entire length of the front and the rear elevations. The walls are more than two feet thick. There are four interior levels encompassing nearly 8,000 square feetfeaturing large, exposed chestnut beams with massive stove fireplaces.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<p>This structure operates today as a bed and breakfast tavern and gift shop. A small garden and goat pen are located outside of the tavern.</p><br>
<p>The Dismal Swamp Canal is a canal located along the eastern edge of the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina in the United States. Opened in 1805, it is the oldest continually operating man-made canal in the United States. It is part of the Intracoastal Waterway.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the Colonial period, water transportation was the lifeblood of the North Carolina sounds region and the Tidewater areas of Virginia. The landlocked sounds were entirely dependent upon poor overland tracks or shipment along the treacherous Carolina coast to reach further markets through Norfolk, Virginia. In May 1763, George Washington made his first visit to the Great Dismal Swamp and suggested draining it and digging a north–south canal through it to connect the waters of the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Albemarle Sound in North Carolina. As the first president, Washington agreed with Virginia Governor Patrick Henry that canals were the easiest answer for an efficient means of internal transportation and urged their creation and improvement.</p><br>
<p>In 1784, the Dismal Swamp Canal Company was created. Work was started in 1793. The canal was dug completely by hand; most of the labor was done by slaves rented from nearby landowners. It took approximately 12 years of construction under highly unfavorable conditions to complete the 22-mile long waterway, which opened in 1805. At about the time the canal opened, the Dismal Swamp Hotel was built astride the state line on the west bank. It was a popular spot for lover&#39;s trysts as well as duels; the winner was rarely arrested as the dead man, as well as the crime, were in another state. As the state line split the main salon, the hotel was quite popular with gamblers who would simply move the game to the opposite side of the room with the arrival of the sheriff from the other jurisdiction. No trace of the hotel can be found today.</p><br>
<p>Tolls were charged for maintenance and improvements. In 1829, the channel was deepened. The waterway was an important route of commerce in the era before railroads, such as the Petersburg Railroad, and highways became major transportation modes.</p><br>
<h2>American Civil War</h2><br>
<p>During the American Civil War (1861–1865) the canal was in an important strategic position for Union and Confederate forces. In April, 1862, upon learning of rumors that the canal would be used to help the Confederate ironclad escape from Hampton Roads to the Albemarle Sound in North Carolina, Union General Ambrose E. Burnside sent General Jesse L. Reno from Roanoke Island to destroy the Culpepper Locks near South Mills on the Dismal Swamp Canal. Reno&#39;s 3,000 troops disembarked from their transports near Elizabeth City on April 18.</p><br>
<p>The Union troops advanced the following morning on an exhausting march toward South Mills where Confederate Colonel Ambrose R. Wright posted his 900 men to command the road to the town. Reno encountered Wrights position at noon. The Confederates determined fighting continued for four hours until their artillery commander, Captain W. W. McComas, was killed. To avoid being flanked, Wright retired behind Joys Creek, two miles away. General Reno did not pursue them because of his losses and his troops exhaustion. That evening he heard a rumor that Confederate reinforcements were arriving from Norfolk and ordered a silent march back to the transports near Elizabeth City. The losses were estimated at 114 Union and 25 Confederate soldiers.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of South Mills was the only battle action near the canal. However, wartime activity left the canal in a terrible state of repair. The repairs and maintenance needed by the canal made travel difficult.</p><br>
<h2>Post-war, 20th century</h2><br>
<p>In 1892, Lake Drummond Canal and Water Company launched rehabilitation efforts and once again, a steady stream of vessels carrying lumber, shingles, farm products, and passengers made the canal a bustling interstate thoroughfare.</p><br>
<p>By the 1920s, improvements in other modes of transportation meant another downturn for the canal, and commercial traffic had subsided except for passenger vessels. In 1929 it was sold to the federal government for $500,000 (~$ in ). As recreational boating became popular in the mid-20th century, the canal became an important link to provide shelter from the brutal forces of the treacherous Atlantic Coast line off the Carolinas and the Virginia capes.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>In modern times, the USA Army Corps of Engineers operates and maintains the canal. The Dismal Swamp Canal is one of two inland routes connecting the Chesapeake Bay and the Albemarle Sound. About 2,000 recreational boaters transit the canal each year as they pass through the Intracoastal Waterway.</p><br>
<p>The canal was closed to boating traffic in October 2016 after Hurricane Matthew caused a flash flood in Chesapeake, Virginia. The runoff from this storm filled the canal with silt and sand, making it impassable. The necessary dredging for navigation on the canal was completed November 2017 to a depth of approximately five feet, and reopened for a short time before closing again, due to being inundated with duckweed. The duckweed clogs the intakes on power boats, quickly causing them to overheat. The Elizabeth River runs almost parallel to the canal, and was not affected by the 2016 flash flood, being much wider and much deeper than the canal. As of March 2018, the canal has been reopened by the USA Army Corps of Engineers. The ICW has remained open during all of this via the Elizabeth River and the North Landing River.</p><br>
<p>The Virginia portion of the canal was located in Norfolk County, which today is the city of Chesapeake, where the northern portion of the canal at Deep Creek connects with the Southern Branch Elizabeth River.</p><br>
<p>The southern end of the canal leads to the Albemarle Sound. The Dismal Swamp Canal Visitor Center is the only visitor center in the continental U. S. greeting visitors by both a major highway and a historic waterway. It is located in Camden County, North Carolina, on scenic USA Highway 17 three miles south of the Virginia/North Carolina border.</p><br>
<p>The canal is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and has been designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. The historic canal is now recognized as part of the Underground Railroad and along with the Great Dismal Swamp, is noted as a former sanctuary for runaway slaves seeking freedom.</p><br>
<p>The East Coast Greenway, a 3,000-mile long system of trails connecting Maine to Florida, runs along part of the Dismal Swamp Canal Trail.</p><br>
<p>Boaters visiting the swamp in the Fall need to be very conscious of the level of duckweed clogging the waterway, which can clog water intakes on power boat engines and systems.</p><br>
<p>The Meatpacking District is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan that runs from West 14th Street south to Gansevoort Street, and from the Hudson River east to Hudson Street. The Meatpacking Business Improvement District along with signage in the area, extend these borders farther north to West 17th Street, east to Eighth Avenue, and south to Horatio Street.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-colonial</h3><br>
<p>A Lenape trading station called Sapohanikan was on the riverbank, which, accounting for landfill, was located about where Gansevoort Street meets Washington Street today. The footpath that led from Sapohanikan inland to the east became the foundation for Gansevoort Street, which by accident or design aligns, within one degree, so that the Manhattanhenge phenomenon, where the setting sun crosses the horizon looking down the street, occurs at the spring and autumnal equinoxes. In recognition of this history, petitions were made to call the 14th Street Park "Saphohanikan Park", although it appears no formal recognition was given.</p><br>
<h3>Initial development</h3><br>
<p>The earliest development of the area now known as the Meatpacking District came in the mid-19th century. Before that it was the location of Fort Gansevoort and of the upper extension of Greenwich Village, which had been a vacation spot until overtaken by the northward movement of New York City. The irregular street patterns in the area resulted from the clash of the Greenwich Village street system with that of the Commissioners&#39; Plan of 1811, which sought to impose a regular grid on the undeveloped part of Manhattan island.</p><br>
<p>Construction of residences in the neighborhood – primarily rowhouses and town houses, some of which were later converted into tenements – began around 1840, primarily in the Greek Revival style which was prominent at the time. By mid-century, with Fort Gansevoort replaced by freight yards of the Hudson River Railroad, a neighborhood developed which was part heavy industry and part residential – a pattern which was more typical of an earlier period in the city&#39;s history but which was becoming less usual, as industry and residences began to be isolated in their own districts. In the western portion of the neighborhood, heavy industry such as iron works and a terra cotta manufacturer could be found, while lighter industry such as carpentry and woodworking, lumber yards, paint works, granite works and a plaster mill blended into the residential area. At the time of the Civil War the part of the district west of Ninth Avenue and Greenwich Street and above 10th Street was the location of numerous distilleries making turpentine and camphene, a lamp fuel.</p><br>
<h3>After the Civil War</h3><br>
<p>When development began again after the war in the 1870s, the tenor of the neighborhood changed. Since it was no longer considered a desirable area to live in, construction of single-family residences was replaced with the building of multiple-family dwellings, and the continued internal industrialization increased. In addition an elevated railroad line had been constructed through the neighborhood along Ninth Avenue and Greenwich Street, completed in 1869. and by the 1920s, what had been a neighborhood based on mixture of marketplaces became more tightly focused on meatpacking and related activities. Other industries continued to be located there, some of which included cigar-making, transportation-related businesses such as automobile repair, express services and garages, import-export firms, marine supplies, cosmetics, and printing. After decades of debate, the High Line elevated freight line was authorized in 1929 as part of the "West Side Improvement Plan", and the New York Central Railroad completed construction, passing through the neighborhood, in 1934.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and resurgence</h3><br>
<p>The area&#39;s decline began around the 1960s as part of the general decline of the waterfront area. Containerization of freight; the advent of supermarkets which changed the distribution pattern for meat, dairy and produce from a locally or regionally based system to a more national one; and the development of frozen foods and refrigerated trucks to deliver them were all factors in this, but meatpacking continued to be the major activity in the neighborhood through the 1970s. At the same time, a new "industry" of nightclubs and other entertainment and leisure operations catering to a gay clientele, began to spring up in the area.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s, as the industrial activities in the area continued their downturn, it became known as a center for drug dealing and prostitution. Concurrent with the rise in illicit sexual activity, the sparsely populated industrial area became the focus of the city&#39;s burgeoning BDSM subculture; over a dozen sex clubs &ndash; including such notable ones as The Anvil, The Manhole, the Mineshaft, and the heterosexual-friendly Hellfire Club &ndash; flourished in the area. Many of these establishments were under the direct control of the Mafia or subject to NYPD protection rackets. In 1985 the Mineshaft was forcibly shuttered by the city at the height of AIDS preventionism.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in the late 1990s, the Meatpacking District went through a transformation. High-end boutiques catering to young professionals and hipsters opened, including Diane von Fürstenberg, Christian Louboutin, Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney, Barbour, Rubin & Chapelle, Theory, Ed Hardy, Puma, Moschino, ADAM by Adam Lippes, and an Apple Store; restaurants such as Pastis—which closed in 2014—and 5 Ninth; and nightclubs such as Tenjune. In 2004, New York magazine called the Meatpacking District "New York’s most fashionable neighborhood".</p><br>
<p>A catalyst for even greater transformation of the area was the opening in June 2009 of the first segment of the High Line linear park. A former elevated freight railroad built under the aegis of Robert Moses, it opened to great reviews in the District (and in Chelsea to the north) as a greenway modeled after Paris&#39;s Promenade Plantée. Thirteen months earlier, the Whitney Museum of American Art had announced that it would build a second, Renzo Piano-designed home at 99 Gansevoort Street, just west of Washington Street and adjacent to the southernmost entrance to the High Line; and on May 1, 2015, the museum opened at this site. These were turning points in the changes experienced by the neighborhood over the first two decades of the 21st century, transforming it from a gritty manufacturing district into a bustling high-end retail, dining, and residential area, as documented by photographer Brian Rose in his 2014 book Metamorphosis.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>In September 2003 the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) established the Gansevoort Market Historic District, and in 2007 New York State Parks Commissioner Carol Ash approved adding the entire Meatpacking District, an area which included both the Gansevoort Market Historic District and the neighborhood&#39;s waterfront, to the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places. The state district was listed on the National Register on May 30, 2007 and included 140 buildings, two structures, and one other site.</p><br>
<p>Simon Gratz High School Mastery Charter, formerly Simon Gratz High School is a secondary school in Philadelphia, named after Simon Gratz , a member of the Philadelphia Board of Education. Originally a public high school operated by the School District of Philadelphia, Gratz has been operated as a charter school by Mastery Schools since September 2011. Students from the previous public school&#39;s enrollment area are eligible to attend. It is the fifth Philadelphia high school operated by Mastery.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, the school was removed from the Persistently Dangerous Schools List while under the new management of Mastery. Part of the building is used for Mastery’s Prep Middle School (7-8th grade).</p><br>
<h2>School uniforms</h2><br>
<p>Gratz students are required to wear school uniforms consisting of red Simon Gratz uniform shirts, black pants or black shirt, and any color shoes.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>George J. Alexander, Dean Emeritus of Santa Clara Law School</p><br>
<p>Harriett Amster, psychologist; pioneering researcher and lecturer in verbal meaning and lexical ambiguity processing</p><br>
<p>Bennie Briscoe, boxer</p><br>
<p>Neef Buck, rapper</p><br>
<p>Roy Campanella, MLB player</p><br>
<p>Zack Clayton, member of Basketball Hall of Fame</p><br>
<p>Roderick Coleman, NFL player</p><br>
<p>Mardy Collins, NBA player</p><br>
<p>Eddie Fisher, singer</p><br>
<p>David Goodis writer</p><br>
<p>William H. Gray III, USA Congressman and CEO, United Negro College Fund</p><br>
<p>Grayson Hall, television, film and stage actress</p><br>
<p>Bernie Kaplan (1913–1992), boxer and NFL player</p><br>
<p>Leroy Kelly, NFL player</p><br>
<p>Pat Kelly (outfielder), MLB player</p><br>
<p>Willie Mae James Leake, Mayor of Chester, Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Joan Little, activist</p><br>
<p>Aaron McKie, NBA player and coach</p><br>
<p>Nathan Milstein, virtuoso violinist</p><br>
<p>Alvin Mitchell, American football player</p><br>
<p>Lobo Nocho, émigré jazz singer and painter in Europe</p><br>
<p>Marvin O&#39;Connor, professional basketball player</p><br>
<p>Aaron Owens, streetball player</p><br>
<p>Harvey Pollack, NBA statistician</p><br>
<p>Ivan Robinson, professional boxer</p><br>
<p>Artie Singer, songwriter, music producer and bandleader</p><br>
<p>Irving Stern, philosopher and thinker</p><br>
<p>Lynard Stewart, professional basketball player</p><br>
<p>Meldrick Taylor, 1984 Olympic gold medalist amateur boxer, Professional boxer</p><br>
<p>Rasheed Wallace, NBA player</p><br>
<p>Young Chris, rapper</p><br>
<p>Earl Watford, NFL player</p><br>
<p>Jerry Yulsman, novelist and photographer</p><br>
<p>Presidents Park, located in Downtown Washington, D.C., encompasses the White House and includes the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, the Treasury Building, and grounds; the White House Visitor Center; Lafayette Square; and The Ellipse. Presidents Park was the original name of Lafayette Square.</p><br>
<p>President&#39;s Park is administered by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>The park is officially referred to as Presidents Park or The White House and Presidents Park.</p><br>
<h2>White House and adjacent buildings</h2><br>
<p>In 1790, under the Residence Act, Philadelphia was designated as the nations temporary capital while the permanent capital was constructed in Washington, D.C. Contests were held to solicit designs for both the United States Capitol and what was then called the Presidents House. James Hoban&#39;s design was selected, and he supervised the construction.</p><br>
<p>The new national capital in Washington, D.C., was finalized and opened in 1800.</p><br>
<p>The White House was later expanded with the addition of the West Wing and East Wing, which now houses the office of the president and presidential staff. The White House grounds include the South Lawn, Rose Garden, Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, and North Lawn.</p><br>
<p>To the west of the White House, across from the West Wing is the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, formerly the Department of State, War, and Navy, and to the east is the Treasury Building.</p><br>
<h2>Lafayette Square</h2><br>
<p>Lafayette Square is a 6.97 acre (28,191 m) public park located directly north of the White House on H Street, bounded by Jackson Place on the west, Madison Place on the east, and Pennsylvania Avenue to the south. The square and the surrounding historic townhouse structures were designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1970. Planned as part of the pleasure grounds surrounding the Executive Mansion, this square was originally called "President&#39;s Park", which is now the name of the larger National Park Service unit. The park was separated from the White House grounds in 1804, when third President Thomas Jefferson had Pennsylvania Avenue cut through east–west. In 1824, the park was officially renamed in honor of the Marquis de Lafayette, the Frenchman and military officer who fought in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783).</p><br>
<p>Lafayette Square has been used as a racetrack, a graveyard, a zoo, a slave market, an encampment for soldiers during the War of 1812, and many political protests and celebrations. Andrew Jackson Downing landscaped Lafayette Square in 1851 in the picturesque style.</p><br>
<h2>The Ellipse</h2><br>
<p>President&#39;s Park South, commonly called The Ellipse, is a 52 acre park located just south of the White House fence. The entire park is open to the public, and features various monuments within walking distance, including the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, and others.</p><br>
<p>The park was conceived in 1791, the first plan for the park was drawn up by Pierre (Peter) Charles L&#39;Enfant. During the Civil War between 1861 and 1865, the grounds of the Ellipse and the not yet complete Washington Monument were used as corrals for horses, mules, and cattle, and as campsites for Union Army troops. The Army Corps of Engineers began landscaping work on the Ellipse in 1867 and worked on it through the late 1880s.</p><br>
<h2>White House Visitor Center</h2><br>
<p>The White House Visitor Center is located in the north end of the Herbert C. Hoover Building, which also houses the Department of Commerce, located off The Ellipse between 14th and 15th Streets on Pennsylvania Avenue NW,</p><br>
<p>Since the September 11 attacks, the visitor center no longer serves as a starting point for those going on a reserved tour of the White House. The various exhibits provide an alternative visitor experience for those not able to go on a tour. The themes of the six permanent exhibits are first families, symbols and images, White House architecture, White House interiors, the working White House, and ceremonies and celebrations. Other exhibits change throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>The Aldrich Public Library is the public library serving the city of Barre, Vermont. It is located at 6 Washington Street in the city center, in an architecturally distinguished Classical Revival building constructed in 1907–08 with funds bequested by Leonard Frost Aldrich, a local businessman, and was substantially enlarged in 2000. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and history</h2><br>
<p>The Aldrich Public Library is a prominent feature of downtown Barre, at the northeast corner of Washington and Elm Streets, across Washington Street from Vermont City Park. It is set back from the intersection, accessed via paved walkways traversing a lawn. It is a two-story building, with a steel frame and brick veneer exterior trimmed in local granite. The front facade is three bays wide, the center one projecting. Banded brick pilasters with Doric capitals articulate each of the bays. The outer bays have three-part windows on each level, set in a shared keystoned granite surround. The main entrance is recessed in the center section, with flanking Ionic columns. It is topped by a decorative granite frieze, and there is a balconied three-part window above. The stairway leading to the entrance is framed by granite sidewalls topped by original Beaux-Arts iron globe light fixtures.</p><br>
<p>The oldest documented library in Barre was a small subscription library established in 1848. In 1873, the Barre Library Association was organized, as a formal subscription library stored in local businesses and homes. A second subscription library, the French Barre Library, was founded in 1887. These two collections were merged when the Aldrich Library was built in 1907–08. The Aldrich Library was made possible by a bequest from Leonard Frost Aldrich, a local businessman who had died without issue. His bequest included funding for construction of the building and the acquisition of books for its collection. The city council originally sought to have a building completely faced in local granite (the city&#39;s primary business), but this was found to be cost prohibitive, and a compromise construction of brick trimmed in local granite was developed by the architect, Penn Varney of Lynn, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>Meridian Playground  is in the Wallingford neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, United States.</p><br>
<p>The site features a building called the Good Shepherd Center, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Home of the Good Shepherd and is a city of Seattle designated landmark. The center was built in 1906 as a Catholic School for wayward girls and operated until 1973. The building is now run by Historic Seattle, while the remainder of the site is run by Seattle Parks and Recreation.</p><br>
<p>The building includes space for the Wallingford Community Senior Center, Meridian School, Tilth Alliance, community organizations, and low cost housing for artists. The old chapel in the center of the top two floors has been converted into a performance space that features experimental performances organized through the Wayward Music Series.</p><br>
<p>The gardens and the apple orchard of the old school largely remain. The pool has been filled in and converted into a garden, and the bath house has been converted into a picnic shelter. Amid the orchard are a playground and two playfields, and to the south side is a demonstration garden operated by Tilth Alliance, and a P-Patch community garden. Community involvement with the site occurs through the Good Shepherd Center Advisory Board.</p><br>
<p>The playground at the site was revamped in 1998 and then upgraded in 2007, both times with matching grants through the city. The sculptures at the back of the playground are based on children&#39;s book characters and the two sculptures at the entry are designed to recall past use of the Home of the Good Shepherd, with a nun in front of the GSC and a school girl picking an apple. There is also a niche sculpture of Jesus as the Good Shepherd over the front entrance to the Center. The play equipment includes a water run (now shut down), swings, and some spinning Kompan play structures for older children.</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool is a historic USA public swimming pool located in Coral Gables, Florida. Completed in 1924, it was designed by Phineas Paist with Denman Fink.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Venetian Pool, opened in 1924 as "Venetian Casino," was created from a 4 acre old coral rock quarry, abandoned in 1921. The pool was founded by George Merrick as part of the development of Coral Gables, which was created in Mediterranean Revival style and utilized a large amount of coral for ornamental features of the community. The remaining quarry was reconfigured by architect Phineas Paist and designed by artist Denman Fink. Named for the Mediterranean city of Venice, Italy, the pool included a Venetian style bridge and classic mooring posts.</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool has gone through several phases. A large additional island was created to allow Venetian-style gondolas to dock alongside, though the gondolas were later removed. A high diving platform was constructed above the grand waterfall and was also later torn down. Early in its history, the pool was regularly drained completely to permit the Miami Symphony to perform in it, taking advantage of the quarrys natural acoustic qualities. In 2001, to celebrate the 75th anniversary of Coral Gables, the pool was once again drained for an orchestral performance. A 1989 renovation restored many of the pools original features.</p><br>
<p>In 1981, Venetian Pool was added to the National Register of Historic Places, and is the only pool listed on the register.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The pool occupies a shallow quarry displacing some 820,000 USgal of fresh water daily from artesian wells, making it the largest freshwater pool in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The pool ranges in depth from four feet to depths of over eight feet near the grand waterfall, with a two-foot kiddy pool near the lifeguard station; the station is atop a bridge leading out to an island with two full size palm trees on it. A grotto, where natural water-filled caves stretch back over twelve feet into the hillside, is located across the pool from the island. There is a sandy sunning area for sunbathers and a café area that is commonly used for weddings and receptions. A walking path surrounds the whole complex.</p><br>
<p>The pool received a massive historical restoration in 1989. The pool had another major renovation (and was closed to the public) between September 8, 2008 and April 30, 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Sustainability</h2><br>
<p>The pool has come under criticism from environmentalists due to the massive amounts of fresh water it uses daily, raising concerns that the process of completely draining the pool every night and refilling it the following day was depleting the Floridian aquifers. In 1998 a solution was devised to drain the water back into the aquifer, using natural ground filtration, thus recycling the precious natural resource, while allowing the pool to maintain its fresh, clear water.</p><br>
<h2>Hours of Operation</h2><br>
<p>The Venetian Pools operate from Tuesday to Sunday from February 1, 2022, to March 19, 2022. Guests can attend the pool from the hours of 10 a.m to 4:30 p.m during these dates. The Venetian Pool&#39;s operation dates and times change frequently. From March 21 to May 29 of 2022, the pools hours of operation are 11 a.m to 4:30 p.m Tuesday through Friday. On Saturday and Sunday, the Venetian Pool is open from 10 a.m to 4:30 p.m. From May 30 to August 14 of 2022, the pool is open Monday through Friday from 11 a.m to 6:30 p.m and 10 a.m to 4:30 p.m for Saturdays and Sundays. From September 6 to October 23 of 2022 the Venetian Pool will be open from Tuesday through Friday from 11 a.m to 5:30 p.m. Lastly, From October 25 to November 27 of 2022, the Venetian Pool is open from 10 a.m to 4:30 p.m Tuesday through Sunday. The Venetian Pool is closed on certain holidays, which include: New Year’s Day, Martin Luther King Day, President’s Day, Thanksgiving Day, Day after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and Christmas Day.</p><br>
<h2>Admission</h2><br>
<p>Admission varies, depending on whether or not the guest is a Coral Gables resident. For residents 13 years and older, admissions prices are $6.50. Any children ranging from ages 3 to 13 have an admissions price of $5.50. Non-residential children must pay $16 and adults $21 for admission. At the venue, lawn chairs and life jackets are readily available.</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 02.jpgEntrance gate</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 20.jpgEntrance building with greenery</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 03.jpgView of pool through railings</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 09.jpgMooring post and waterfall</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 10.jpgView of pool through entrance building</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 19.jpgMooring post, island and pool</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 17.jpgMain buildings with pool and island</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 18.jpgIsland with bridge</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 16.jpgWaterfall and pool</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 04.jpgMain building and greenery</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 06.jpgFountain and hanging ceiling lamp</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 05.jpgFountain in main building</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 12.jpgInterior gallery of main building</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 01.jpgTrellis gallery</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 13.jpgDoor leading to water fountain in main building</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 08.jpgLandscaped path around pool</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 07.jpgShrubbery, trees and pool</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 11.jpgWaterfall and main building</p><br>
<p>Venetian Pool 15.jpgGeneral view of buildings and pool</p><br>
<p>Crown Hill Cemetery is a historic rural cemetery located at 700 West 38th Street in Indianapolis, Marion County, Indiana. The privately owned cemetery was established in 1863 at Strawberry Hill, whose summit was renamed "The Crown", a high point overlooking Indianapolis. It is approximately 2.8 mi northwest of the city&#39;s center. Crown Hill was dedicated on June 1, 1864, and encompasses 555 acre, making it the third largest non-governmental cemetery in the United States. Its grounds are based on the landscape designs of Pittsburgh landscape architect and cemetery superintendent John Chislett Sr and Prussian horticulturalist Adolph Strauch. In 1866, the USA government authorized a USA National Cemetery for Indianapolis. The 1.4 acre Crown Hill National Cemetery is located in Sections 9 and 10.</p><br>
<p>Crown Hill contains 25 mi of paved road, over 150 species of trees and plants, over 225,000 graves, and services roughly 1,500 burials per year. Crown Hill is the final resting place for individuals from all walks of life, from political and civic leaders to ordinary citizens, infamous criminals, and unknowns. Benjamin Harrison, 23rd president of the United States, and Vice Presidents Charles W. Fairbanks, Thomas A. Hendricks, and Thomas R. Marshall are buried at Crown Hill. Infamous bank robber and "Public Enemy #1" John Dillinger is another internee. The gravesite of Hoosier poet James Whitcomb Riley overlooks the city from "The Crown".</p><br>
<p>Many of the cemetery&#39;s mausoleums, monuments, memorials, and structures were designed by architects, landscape designers, and sculptors such as Diedrich A. Bohlen, George Kessler, Rudolf Schwarz, Adolph Scherrer, and the architectural firms of D. A. Bolen and Son and Vonnegut and Bohn, among others. Works by contemporary sculptors include David L. Rodgers, Michael B. Wilson, and Eric Nordgulen.</p><br>
<p>The cemeterys administrative offices, mortuary, and crematorium are located at 38th Street and Clarendon Road on the cemeterys north grounds. Crown Hills Waiting Station, built in 1885 at its east entrance on 34th Street and Boulevard Place, serves as a meeting place for tours and programs. The Crown Hill Heritage Foundation, a nonprofit corporation established in 1984, raises funds to preserve the cemeterys historic buildings and grounds. Crown Hill Cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 28, 1973.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Crown Hill was not Indianapoliss first major cemetery. Alexander Ralston included a cemetery site in his 1821 plan of Indianapolis at the south end of Kentucky Avenue, where it intersects South and West Streets. Prior to the establishment of Crown Hill Cemetery in 1863, the citys main cemetery was expanded in the 1830s to create the 25 acre Greenlawn Cemetery on the city&#39;s southwest side. During the Civil War, Greenlawn was quickly filling with burials of Union soldiers and Confederate prisoners of war and faced encroachment from west side industrial development. By the end of the 1870s it was closed to further interments due to lack of space.</p><br>
<p>The normal demands of a growing city, along with the capacity issues at Greenlawn, prompted a group of Indianapolis&#39;s civic-minded men to establish a new and larger cemetery within five miles of the city. On September 12, 1863, the men met with John Chislett Sr, a Pittsburgh landscape architect and cemetery superintendent, to discuss ideas for a cemetery that would be based on the park-like settings becoming popular in Europe, most notably the Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. On September 25, 1863, the group formed the Association of Crown Hill.</p><br>
<p>Once the initial land was secured, the board hired Chisletts son, Frederick, as Crown Hills first superintendent. He arrived in Indianapolis with his wife and children on December 31, 1863. Frederick supervised the construction of the cemeterys first roads and developed the propertys grounds based on the landscape designs of his father and Prussian horticulturalist Adolph Strauch. The design retained many of the cemeterys natural features and laid out winding roads to create a landscape in the Victorian Romantic style. The cemeterys first main entrance was off old Michigan Road (later known as Northwestern Avenue and currently as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr Boulevard).</p><br>
<p>Crown Hill Cemetery was dedicated on June 1, 1864. The first burial at Crown Hill was the body of Lucy Ann Seaton, aged 33, a young mother who had died of consumption. Omnibus transportation reached the cemetery in 1864. Visitors could also travel by steam-powered boat up the Central Canal to reach Crown Hill. Automobiles were allowed on the grounds beginning in 1912.</p><br>
<p>In 1866, the federal government purchased 1.4 acre of land within the grounds of Crown Hill for a national military cemetery. The bodies of more than 700 Union soldiers who had died in Indianapolis during the Civil War were moved from Greenlawn Cemetery to new graves at the National Cemetery. On May 30, 1868, Crown Hill, along with Arlington National Cemetery and 182 others in 27 states, took part in the country&#39;s first Memorial Day celebrations. An estimated crowd of 10,000 attended the Crown Hill ceremony, beginning an annual tradition at the site.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-1800s, Crown Hill was a burial ground as well as a popular location for recreational activities such as picnics, strolls, and carriage rides. It is well known for its views of downtown Indianapolis from "The Crown". In addition to developing the cemetery grounds, Crown Hills Corporators built new structures on the site. A Gothic chapel and vault was erected in 1875. The main entrance was moved to 34th Street on the cemeterys east side, where the cemeterys Waiting Station building and a three-arched gateway were erected in 1885. A new gate and gatehouse were built at the west entrance in 1900 to replace earlier structures that were demolished. Over several decades Crown Hills grounds expanded to include substantial parcels of land north of 38th Street (known then as Maple Road). In 1911, the acquisition of 40 acre at the northwest corner of Crown Hill made the 550 acre grounds the third largest nongovernmental cemetery in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Crown Hills Pioneer Cemetery was established on the north grounds in 1912. The bodies of 1,160 early settlers from Greenlawn Cemetery were moved to this new section at Crown Hill. The remains of 33 people from Rhoads Cemetery, established on the citys west side in 1844, were interred in the Pioneer Cemetery in 1999. Bodies from the Wright-Whitesell-Gentry Cemetery located near Castleton on the city&#39;s northeast side were moved to the Pioneer Cemetery in 2008–09.</p><br>
<p>The cemeterys grounds continued to change. In 1914, landscape architect George Kessler designed a brick and wrought-iron fence nearly 3 mi long. It was completed in the early 1920s and surrounded three quarters of the cemeterys south grounds and the southern end of the north grounds along 38th Street. A bridge/underpass that became known as the Subway passed beneath 38th Street to connect the north and south grounds. Although Crown Hill faced competition from other cemeteries in the area, it continued to expand. More than 100,000 people were buried there by the late 1930s and more than 155,000 by the late 1970s. The cemetery&#39;s Community Mausoleum was formally dedicated in 1951. Building five of the Garden Mausoleums, a series of outdoor mausoleums, was completed in 1962. A new administrative building by Bohlen and Burns was dedicated in 1969. By the early 1980s, Crown Hill was valued at nearly $3 million. Its annual sales were estimated at $250,000, with an operating budget of $895,000. The cemetery employed 15 salaried employees, 21 full-time maintenance workers, and 25 seasonal workers.</p><br>
<p>Preservation of the cemeterys monuments and structures remained an ongoing concern to Crown Hills board. The Crown Hill Heritage Foundation, a nonprofit corporation, was established in 1984 to raise funds for restoration of the cemetery&#39;s historic buildings and its grounds. By 1997 the foundation had raised $1.8 million, with an additional $3.2 million raised later, to restore the Gothic Chapel and make other improvements to the cemetery. In the 1990s Crown Hill added a mortuary and a new crematorium.</p><br>
<p>On February 28, 1973, Crown Hill Cemetery, including the National Cemetery, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The National Cemetery portion, which is listed separately, was added to the National Register on April 29, 1999.</p><br>
<p>On October 19, 1976, the Indiana Historical Bureau and the Board of Corporators of Crown Hill Cemetery erected a historical marker for the cemetery honoring its historic significance to Indiana and the United States.</p><br>
<p>The first African American female, Cynthia Strayhorn Whisler, served as the managing director of Crown Hill Cemetery in 1996. Milton O. Thompson, a lawyer, former deputy Marion County prosecutor, and founder of a sports and entertainment management company became the board&#39;s first African American member. Hilary Stour Salatich, a Conseco executive and civic leader, became the first female corporator in 1997.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Gibraltar Remembrance Services began managing Crown Hill Cemetery. Service Corporation International acquired Gibraltar Remembrance Services in 2018.</p><br>
<h2>Special sections</h2><br>
<h3>National Cemetery</h3><br>
<p>In 1866 the USA government authorized a USA National Cemetery for Indianapolis as a burial site for Union soldiers who died in military camps and hospitals near the city during the Civil War. The National Cemetery is located on 1.4 acre within the grounds of Crown Hill in Section 10 The federal government purchased the site from Crown Hill&#39;s board for $5,000. On October 19, 1866, the remains of the first Union soldier were removed from Greenlawn Cemetery and interred at the National Cemetery at Crown Hill. By November 1866, the bodies of 707 soldiers had been moved from Greenlawn to the National Cemetery. As of December 31, 1998, the National Cemetery is filled. It encompasses 795 burial sites.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate soldiers&#39; burials</h3><br>
<p>Crown Hill is also a burial site for Confederate soldiers who died at Camp Morton, a prison camp located north of Indianapolis. In 1931, when industrial development around Greenlawn Cemetery required the bodies of the Confederate prisoners to be moved, their remains were interred in a mass grave known as the Confederate Mound in Section 32 at Crown Hill. In 1993 a memorial with ten bronze plaques listing the names of the 1,616 Confederate soldiers and sailors who died at Camp Morton was dedicated at the site.</p><br>
<h3>Field of Valor</h3><br>
<p>Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq prompted expansion of Crown Hill&#39;s military sections to include the Field of Valor on 4 acre of the north grounds. It was dedicated on Veterans Day, November 11, 2004. The Eternal Flame and Eagle Plaza installed in front of the memorial were dedicated on Veterans Day in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>Wildlife abounds in Crown Hill Cemetery, which serves as a large refuge for birds, white-tailed deer, and small animals. The cemetery&#39;s grounds are home to more than 10,000 trees of some 130 unique species. In 2022, Crown Hill earned Level II Accreditation by the ArbNet Arboretum Accreditation Program.</p><br>
<h2>Artworks</h2><br>
<p>There are many works of art on the property, some of which are freestanding, but most of which are associated with a gravesite. Notable examples include:</p><br>
<p>James Whitcomb Rileys Tomb: Following Rileys death on July 22, 1916, Crown Hills board offered his family the prestigious site at "The Crown", the summit of Crown Hill that overlooks Indianapolis, as his final resting place. His was buried there on October 6, 1917. Rileys gravesite is marked with a large, open-canopied monument.</p><br>
<p>Forrest Memorial: This is the gravesite of Albertina Allen Forrest, wife of Butler University professor and Citizens Gas general manager Jacob Dorrsey Forrest. She died on April 27, 1904. To mark the grave, her husband commissioned Viennese sculptor Rudolf Schwarz, whose work adorns numerous monuments and memorials including the Soldiers and Sailors Monument in Indianapolis, to create "Statue in Repose", a kneeling woman in mourning beneath a couplet from Alfred Lord Tennysons "In Memoriam". Albertinas husband, who died in 1930, is buried in an unmarked grave beside the memorial.</p><br>
<p>Three limestone statues depicting the Greek goddesses Themis, Demeter, and Persephone from the old Marion County Courthouse. The courthouse was demolished in 1962.</p><br>
<p>Equatorial Sundial:David L. Rodgers was commissioned to create the functional sundial in 1985. It was fabricated of Indiana limestone in Bloomington, Indiana, and installed in front of the Community Mausoleum in 1987.</p><br>
<p>The Hoosier Artists Contemporary Sculpture Walk: Established to mark Crown Hills 140th anniversary, the walk includes works by ten artists, including Michael B. Wilsons "Social Attachments" and Eric Nordgulen&#39;s "Antenna Man".</p><br>
<p>Holcomb Mausoleum Door: Part of a memorial for James Irving Holcomb, an Indianapolis industrialist and a Vice President of the Butler University board of trustees</p><br>
<h2>Notable memorials</h2><br>
<p>Medical Science Donor Memorial, installed in 1991. In 1978 the Anatomical Education Board of the Indiana University School of Medicine purchased Section 41-A to inter the cremated remains of bodies that had been studied. As of 2011 more than one thousand medical donors have been recognized at the memorial.</p><br>
<p>Indiana AIDS Memorial, dedicated on October 29, 2000, is the first permanent AIDS memorial located in a cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The Heroes of Public Safety monument, dedicated on September 11, 2002, is inscribed with the names of police, firefighters, and other public safety personnel who died in the line of duty.</p><br>
<p>The Hearts Remembered Memorial, dedicated on June 4, 2006, remembers the city&#39;s orphaned and abandoned children, many of whom were buried in unmarked graves.</p><br>
<h2>Structures</h2><br>
<p>Gothic chapel – Indianapolis architect Diedrich A. Bohlen designed the High Victorian Gothic-style chapel and vault, which were built east of the National Cemetery in 1875 at an initial cost of $38,922. They replaced an earlier vault that was used as temporary storage for bodies awaiting burial. In 1917 D.A. Bolen and Son designed an addition to the structure designed by D. A. Bohlen, the architectural firm&#39;s founder. The chapel and vaults were restored in the early 1970s at a cost of $120,000. CSO Architects began a major renovation and expansion in 2001. The project cost $3.2 million and received an excellence in Architecture Award from the American Institute of Architects, Indiana chapter, in 2007.</p><br>
<p>East gate, Waiting Station, and Porters Lodge – Adolf Scherrer, an Indianapolis architect of Swiss origins, designed the High Victorian Gothic gateway and Waiting Station for the cemeterys main entrance at 34th Street and Boulevard Place. Construction began in May 1885. The three-arched gateway was completed in November 1885, in time for the funeral of vice-president and former Indiana governor Thomas A. Hendricks. The gate was built of Bedford limestone. The Waiting Station exterior is brick and limestone. A gatehouse house that became known as Porters Lodge at the gates south side was designed by the Indianapolis architectural firm of Vonnegut and Bohn and built in 1904. The Crown Hill board leased the Waiting Station to Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana in 1970 for one dollar per year, provided the preservation organization agreed to restore the historic structure. The restoration was completed by February 1971. HLFI moved to offices on Michigan Street in 1990 and the Waiting Station was leased until the mid-1990s, when Crown Hill began using it for office space. Crown Hill spent an additional $500,000 to restore the Waiting Station in the late 1990s. It was restored again in 2001 and serves as a meeting place for cemetery tours and programs.</p><br>
<p>Subway bridge/underpass – The underpass beneath 38th Street that connects the north and south grounds is also known as the Subway. Construction began in 1925 and was completed in 1927 at cost of $170,000. It was restored in the 1980s.</p><br>
<p>West gate and gatehouse – In 1901 the original west entrance to the cemetery was demolished and an arched Romanesque gate and a gatehouse designed by Indianapolis architect Herbert Foltz was erected at its southwest corner. The west gate was closed in 1965 and demolished the following year.</p><br>
<p>Masonry fence – In 1914 George Kessler designed a brick and wrought-iron fence to replace the cemetery&#39;s wood and wire fencing. The masonry fence surrounded three quarters of the south grounds and the southern end of the north grounds along 38th Street. It cost nearly $138,000. The fence has a 4 ft thick concrete base, brick supports 8.5 ft in height, and sections of wrought iron measuring 25 ft in length that rest on brick support walls. Brick pillars at the entrances are more than 12 ft tall. Construction of the fence, which is approximately 3 mi long, was completed in 1920. A multi-year restoration costing $600,000 began in 1985.</p><br>
<p>Mausoleums – Crown Hill contains several family and communal mausoleums: Community Mausoleum, designed by D. A. Bohlen and Company, was completed in the early 1950s. Its exterior is made of Indiana Bedford limestone; the interior is marble. Abbey Mausoleum, which was planned in 1993, is designed by Patrick L. Fly and cost $1.3 million. It is built of Indiana limestone and Carnelian granite.</p><br>
<p>Superintendent&#39;s residence – A home for the superintendent remained on cemetery grounds until 1950. D. A. Bohlen designed a three-story Victorian house to replace a log cabin structure in the late 1860s. Fire destroyed the Victorian residence in 1913, but a new three-story brick home was already under construction as its replacement. The brick residence was removed from Crown Hill in 1950.</p><br>
<p>Administrative offices – A building erected at 38th and Clarenden Streets in 1969 serves as Crown Hill&#39;s business offices.</p><br>
<p>Mortuary and crematorium – Groundbreaking for a $1.5 million mortuary took place in May 1992. Architect J. Stuart Todd drew up the plans. The funeral home opened on March 1, 1993. Gibralter Remembrance Services, LLC, who purchased the mortuary in 2006, built a 9,500 square foot expansion. A new crematorium was added in 1990.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<h3>Political and civil rights figures</h3><br>
<p>Benjamin Harrison, 23rd president of the United States, along with his first wife, Caroline Harrison; his second wife, Mary Dimmick Harrison; his son Russell Benjamin Harrison; and his daughter Mary Harrison McKee.</p><br>
<p>Vice Presidents of the United States Charles W. Fairbanks, Thomas A. Hendricks, and Thomas R. Marshall.</p><br>
<p>Vice presidential nominees George Washington Julian, William Hayden English, and John W. Kern.</p><br>
<p>Indiana Governors Noah Noble, David Wallace, James Whitcomb, Abram A. Hammond, Oliver P. Morton, Thomas A. Hendricks, Albert G. Porter, Ira Joy Chase, Winfield T. Durbin, Thomas R. Marshall, and Robert D. Orr.</p><br>
<p>United States Senators Oliver H. Smith, Thomas A. Hendricks, Benjamin Harrison, Charles W. Fairbanks, Albert J. Beveridge, John W. Kern, Joseph E. McDonald, Thomas Taggart, David Turpie, Homer E. Capehart, Robert Hanna, and Harry S. New.</p><br>
<p>USA Representatives George W. Julian, General Ebenezer Dumont, Albert Porter, John H. Farquhar, Ralph Hill, Franklin Landers, Samuel M. Moores, William E. Niblack, and Julia Carson.</p><br>
<p>Mayors of Indianapolis including Caleb Scudder, James McCready, Henry F. West, Samuel D. Maxwell, John Caven, Daniel W. Grubbs, Caleb S. Denny, Thomas L. Sullivan, Thomas Taggart, Charles A. Bookwalter, John W. Holtzman, Samuel L. Shank, Joseph E. Bell, Charles W. Jewett, John L. Duvall, Claude E. Negley, Reginald H. Sullivan, Walter C. Boetcher, Robert Tyndall, George L. Denny, and Christian J. Emhardt.</p><br>
<p>Allen M. Fletcher, Governor of Vermont</p><br>
<p>Addison C. Harris, USA Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (ambassador) to Austria-Hungary.</p><br>
<p>William Henry Harrison Miller, USA Attorney General.</p><br>
<p>William D. McCoy, United States Ambassador to Liberia</p><br>
<p>Meredith Nicholson, author and USA Minister to Paraguay, Venezuela, and Nicaragua</p><br>
<p>May Wright Sewall, women&#39;s rights advocate.</p><br>
<p>William S. Taylor, Governor of Kentucky</p><br>
<p>William F. Turner, first Chief Justice of the Arizona Supreme Court.</p><br>
<p>Henry Lane Wilson, Ambassador to Mexico and USA Minister to Chile and to Belgium.</p><br>
<p>Zerelda G. Wallace, temperance advocate and suffragette, second wife of governor and congressman David Wallace, Lew Wallace&#39;s stepmother, and sister-in-law of James Gatling.</p><br>
<p>Christopher T. Gonzalez, LGBT and AIDs activist, along with his life partner Jeff Werner.</p><br>
<h3>Military figures</h3><br>
<p>American Civil War generals for the Union army: Thomas Armstrong Morris, Edward Richard Sprigg Canby, Jefferson C. Davis, Abel Streight, George Francis McGinnis, John Parker Hawkins, Robert Sanford Foster, John Coburn, Frederick Knefler, and George Henry Chapman.</p><br>
<p>The remains of 1,616 Confederate soldiers who died during their confinement at Camp Morton, a Union prison camp in Indianapolis. Their remains were transferred to Crown Hill in 1931.</p><br>
<p>Two British Commonwealth service personnel are buried in this cemetery, one from each World War: Captain Joseph Hammond of the Royal Air Force, killed in 1918, and Warrant Officer Thomas Taggart Young, Royal Canadian Air Force, who died in 1942.</p><br>
<p>Charles W. Brouse, Congressional Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>James H. Kasler, Korean and Vietnam War fighter pilot and POW; only recipient of three Air Force Crosses</p><br>
<p>John Swanson Congressional Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>Roscoe Turner, aviator, winner of a Distinguished Flying Cross, and transcontinental speed recordholder.</p><br>
<h3>Sports figures</h3><br>
<p>James A. Allison, Frank Wheeler, Arthur Newby, and Carl Fisher, founders of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.</p><br>
<p>Indianapolis 500 winners Floyd Davis, Louis Schneider, Howdy Wilcox</p><br>
<p>Bob Jenkins, voice of the Indianapolis 500 1990–1998</p><br>
<p>Erwin "Cannon Ball" Baker, record setting automobile and motorcycle racer.</p><br>
<p>George Bignotti, Indianapolis 500 and American open-wheel racing team owner and mechanic.</p><br>
<p>William L. "Bill" Garrett, the first African American to play in the Big Ten Conference.</p><br>
<p>Robert Irsay, former owner of the Indianapolis Colts.</p><br>
<p>Frank McKinney, Olympic gold medalist in swimming, later president of Bank One of Indiana and civic booster.</p><br>
<p>Toad Ramsey, Major League Baseball player from 1885 through 1890.</p><br>
<p>Stacey Toran, Football defensive back for the Los Angeles Raiders.</p><br>
<p>John Woodruff, Olympic gold medalist in track, 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.</p><br>
<h3>Founders and inventors</h3><br>
<p>Lyman S. Ayres, founder of L. S. Ayres department stores.</p><br>
<p>Charles H. Black</p><br>
<p>Ovid Butler, founder of Butler University.</p><br>
<p>August Duesenberg and Frederick S. Duesenberg, automotive industrialists</p><br>
<p>Frank P. Fox, Indianapolis 500 driver and owner of the Pope Motor Car Company</p><br>
<p>Howard Garns, inventor of Sudoku</p><br>
<p>Richard Jordan Gatling, American inventor, best known for his invention of the Gatling gun.</p><br>
<p>John F. Geisse, founder of Target Stores, Venture Stores, and The Wholesale Club.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Eli Lilly, founder of Eli Lilly and Company, and several of his descendants, including Josiah K. Lilly Sr., Josiah K. Lilly Jr., Eli Lilly, and Ruth Lilly.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Marmon, Early Indianapolis-based automotive manufacturers and a principal of Nordyke Marmon and Company</p><br>
<p>Thomas A. Morris, Indiana railroad executive and civil engineer</p><br>
<p>David M. Parry, founder of the Parry Auto Company</p><br>
<p>Harry C. Stutz, Indianapolis-based automobile engineer and industrialist.</p><br>
<p>Hiram P. Wasson, founder of H. P. Wasson and Company department stores</p><br>
<h3>Arts and media</h3><br>
<p>James Baskett, the first African American man to win an Academy Award and best known for his role as Uncle Remus in Disney&#39;s Song of the South (1946).</p><br>
<p>Sarah T. Bolton, poet.</p><br>
<p>Jacob Cox, portrait and landscape painter.</p><br>
<p>Cecil Duane Crabb, ragtime composer.</p><br>
<p>William Forsyth, Hoosier Group artist</p><br>
<p>Richard Gruelle, Hoosier Group artist</p><br>
<p>John Wesley Hardrick, artist</p><br>
<p>Frank McKinney "Kin" Hubbard, cartoonist and humorist.</p><br>
<p>Etheridge Knight, poet.</p><br>
<p>James Whitcomb Riley, poet, best known for his poem "Little Orphant Annie"</p><br>
<p>Otto Stark, Hoosier Group artist</p><br>
<p>Booth Tarkington, author and winner of two Pulitzer Prizes</p><br>
<h3>Other</h3><br>
<p>Francis Costigan, pioneer Indiana architect</p><br>
<p>John Dillinger, notorious bank robber in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>G. T. Haywood, First Presiding Bishop of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World.</p><br>
<p>Josephine R. Nichols (1838–1897), President, Indiana State Woman&#39;s Christian Temperance Union</p><br>
<p>Alexander Ralston, surveyor who designed the original plan of Indianapolis in 1821.</p><br>
<h3>Fictional interment</h3><br>
<p>In the 2012 book The Fault in Our Stars, as well as the 2014 film adaptation of the same name, the love interest Augustus Waters is buried at Crown Hill in a gravesite facing 38th Street.</p><br>
<p>Sonnenberg Gardens and Mansion State Historic Park is a 50 acre state park located at 151 Charlotte Street in Canandaigua, New York, at the north end of Canandaigua Lake, in the Finger Lakes region of Upstate New York. The house and gardens are open to the public every day, May through October.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The property was once the summer home of Frederick Ferris Thompson, a prominent banker in New York City, and his wife Mary Clark Thompson, whose father, Myron Holley Clark, was Governor of New York State in 1855. The Clark family was from Canandaigua. Mr. & Mrs. Thompsons main home was in NYC in a large townhouse on Madison Avenue. The Thompsons purchased the Sonnenberg property in 1863, keeping the name, Sonnenberg (which means "sunny hill" in German). In 1887, they replaced the original farmhouse with a forty-room Queen Anne style mansion. The property also had a 100 acre farm to the east. Sonnenbergs gardens were designed and built between 1902 and 1919, and originally consisted of nine gardens in a variety of styles.</p><br>
<p>The Thompsons had no children. The nephew who inherited the estate after Mary Clark Thompsons death in 1923 sold the property to the Federal Government in 1931, who built a veterans hospital (today the Canandaigua VA Medical Center) on the adjacent farmland. The government used the mansion to house doctor&#39;s families and some nurses. In 1972, by an act of Congress called the Sonnenberg Bill, the mansion and its grounds were transferred from the Federal Government to a local non-profit organization formed to restore and reopen the property. It was opened to the public in 1973. All nine gardens have been restored and visitors can tour the mansion. In 2005, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation bought the estate. It is still operated by the non-profit.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>Today most of the gardens have been restored, as follows:</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory – A Lord & Burnham conservatory complex, built between 1903 and 1915, and considered one of the most important residential greenhouse complexes in the United States. The complex includes a domed Palm House, with other glass houses featuring orchids, cacti, and tropical plants.</p><br>
<p>Japanese Garden – A miniature mountainous Japanese landscape, with torii gate. It is said that its tea house was modeled upon a very old tea house in Kyoto, since destroyed by fire. In addition, there is a statue of Buddha.</p><br>
<p>Sub Rosa Garden – A green garden (having no flowers) with white marble fountain complex set off by green lawn, boxwood, and evergreens. The fountain is Zeus, with Artemis and Apollo.</p><br>
<p>Rose Garden – A belvedere with over 2,500 rose bushes. The main beds are red, white, and pink; other beds are more varied in color.</p><br>
<p>Italian Garden – Four sunken parterres in a fleur-de-lis pattern, bordered by yews, with about 20,000 annuals in the bedding.</p><br>
<p>Blue & White Garden – Blue and white flowers with a Zelkova japonica tree in the center.</p><br>
<p>Pansy Garden – Planted with pansies with a delightful pedestal fountain as the centerpiece.</p><br>
<p>Moonlight Garden – Only white flowers, blooming late afternoon, and many fragrant. Includes heliotrope, tuberoses and verbenas.</p><br>
<p>Old-Fashioned Garden – A geometric garden, in which a low boxwood hedge forms the quincunx pattern of five circles. Four quarter sections, each with a center circle, are filled with annuals and perennials surrounded with diagonal intersecting walks, and an arbor in the center bisects the fifth circle.</p><br>
<p>Rock Garden – Formerly three gardens (the Wild Garden, the Lily Garden, and the Rock Garden), completed in 1919, but now merged to form an informal, wooded garden. Its path winds through a canyon constructed of puddingstone, with natural pockets and crannies used for alpine plants. Water includes 500 feet (150 m) of streams, waterfalls, and pools fed by geysers and springs.</p><br>
<p>Grounds were planted with many specimen trees (some planted by important guests), now numbering over 140 varieties.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion</h2><br>
<p>Built between 1885 and 1887, the 40-room Queen Anne style mansion was designed by Francis R. Allen, a noted Boston architect. Allen also designed and oversaw the remodeling of the mansion approximately 15 years after it was constructed. Two of the three floors are furnished and open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The mansion&#39;s facade is rusticated graystone with Medina sandstone trim and gables made from timber and stucco. The roof is slate with lead-coated copper.</p><br>
<h2>Other attractions</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the nine gardens and mansion, the property hosts the Finger Lakes Wine Center, which is housed in the Bay House and offers a number of local wines for tasting and purchase, as well a fine gift shop.</p><br>
<p>A cafe is located in the Gardener&#39;s House serving light lunches.</p><br>
<p>The Nevada Northern Railway Museum is a railroad museum and heritage railroad located in Ely, Nevada, owned by the State of Nevada and operated by a historic foundation dedicated to the preservation of the Nevada Northern Railway.</p><br>
<p>Museum activities include restoration and operation of historic railroad equipment and various hands on experiences and a variety of special events including seasonal trains for Halloween and Santa-themed trains for Christmas. This is one of the few places in the world where visitors can actually operate a steam locomotive, but this experience requires some advanced planning.</p><br>
<h2>Location and history</h2><br>
<p>The museum is situated at the East Ely Yards, which are part of the Nevada Northern Railway. The site is listed on the United States National Register of Historic Places as the Nevada Northern Railway East Ely Yards and Shops and is also known as the "Nevada Northern Railway Complex". The rail yards were designated a National Historic Landmark District on September 27, 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Collection</h2><br>
<p>The museum collection includes three of the railroad&#39;s original steam locomotives, an electric locomotive and several diesel-electric locomotives, as well as a collection of maintenance equipment and numerous historic freight and passenger rail cars. Two of the steam locomotives, #81 and #93, are in operation in regularly scheduled events throughout the year; with #40 currently out of service for an overhaul. Locomotive #40 is the official State Locomotive of Nevada. The museum also maintains an extensive fleet of its original rolling stock, including passenger cars, wood-side box cars, ore cars, and work trains, all dating from the 1910s. It has the oldest operating tank car and the oldest operating coal-fired steam crane on any American railroad.</p><br>
<p>During the 2002 Winter Olympics, held in Salt Lake City, the Nevada Northern Railway was part of the Olympic Steam Team, carrying spectators to the Soldier Hollow Olympic venue on the Heber Valley Railroad; with locomotive #93 sent to Utah to participate. The day prior to the Opening Ceremony of the games, #93 joined Heber&#39;s two steam locomotives in a triple-headed train, and used to transport the Olympic flame from Soldier Hollow to Heber City, Utah as part of the torch relay.</p><br>
<p>In late October 2020, locomotive #40 was taken out of service for its Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) mandated 1,472-day inspection and overhaul. 2-8-0 #81 returned to service in September 2021, after undergoing a boiler test in 2020. Also in storage at the museum is Steptoe Valley Mining & Smelting #3, a H.K. Porter, Inc. steam locomotive which was used at the McGill smelter and had a brief preservation career on the early Niles Canyon Railway.</p><br>
<h2>Depot building</h2><br>
<p>The East Ely Depot served passengers on the Nevada Northern. The Mission Revival style depot was designed by Frederick Hale and built in 1907. It reflects a standardized vernacular that borrows primarily from the Mission Revival style, as well as from Renaissance Revival.</p><br>
<p>The two story depot is set on a stone foundation. The ground floor is rusticated stone, separated from the upper level by a painted stone belt course, with a stuccoed second story. The gables are curvilinear in the accepted Mission Revival style. The well-preserved interior retains separate mens and womens waiting rooms, with baggage and express rooms. Offices are on the second floor.</p><br>
<p>The depot was a significant location on the Nevada Northern as the chief embarkation point for the copper mining region of White Pine County. The location of the depot was a matter of controversy between the railroad and residents of Ely, who successfully sued the railroad to change the depots name from Ely to East Ely to reflect its distance from the main townsite. The railroad, originally owned by the Nevada Consolidated Copper Company, was transferred to the Kennecott Copper Company in 1933 when it took over Consolidateds mining operations. Passenger service on the Nevada Northern stopped in 1941, and the depot was used for Kennecott offices until 1985. The state of Nevada acquired the depot in 1990 for the museum.</p><br>
<p>The East Ely Depot was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage Railroad</h2><br>
<p>The museum & Ely City own the entire original Nevada Northern Railway route, however only a small segment from Ruth to Ely is currently in use by the railroad for the tourist trains; plans to reopen the line to McGill were announced on October 14, 2021, by way of a $10 million federal grant. Another isolated segment connecting to the Union Pacific mainline at Shafter, Nevada is used for car storage.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The depot building was used for scenes in the 2001 film, Rat Race. The museum appeared in a 2010 episode of Modern Marvels, titled "Super Steam." The museum also appeared in six episodes of American Restoration, and was referenced in a 2017 episode of The Big Bang Theory. The Railroad&#39;s locomotive #40 was featured prominently in the 2017 J-pop music video "Black Train" by artists Tsuyoshi Nagabuchi,.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, Number 40 appeared in the Made-For-Television movie: Once Upon A Texas Train starring country singer Willie Nelson which was broadcast on the CBS TV network in early January of 1988, Albeit in the opening & closing credits. Over the Years, some of the equipment at the museum was shown in several episodes of the History Channel&#39;s Reality Show: American Restoration.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, went viral after photos of him were posted online by professional photographer Steve Crise. Born in 2008, the cat has been named the railroads mascot. Dirt passed away on January 10, 2023. The museum announced the cats death publicly the following day along with plans to place two bronze statues of Dirt on site, with one near the cats grave site, and one in the machine shop where the cat lived.</p><br>
<p>Wave Hill is a 28 acre estate in the Hudson Hill section of Riverdale in the Bronx, New York City. Wave Hill currently consists of public horticultural gardens and a cultural center, all situated on the slopes overlooking the Hudson River, with expansive views across the river to the New Jersey Palisades. The estate includes two houses and a botanical garden. The oldest part of the main house, Wave Hill House, dates to 1843; Glyndor House dates from 1927 and contains a multi-room art gallery. Perkins Visitor Center, which was originally a garage, contains a gift shop and an information desk.</p><br>
<p>During the late 19th century and early 20th century, numerous highly notable people resided in Wave Hill, either because they owned it, leased it, or stayed there as guests. In 1960, the estate was given to the City of New York, and Wave Hill is now a cultural center as well as a garden. In addition to visual arts exhibits, paid-ticket concert series take place on some Sunday afternoons in Armor Hall. Wave Hill is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a New York City designated landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The original Wave Hill House was a gray fieldstone mansion built in 1843 by lawyer William Lewis Morris. It was owned from 1866 to 1903 by publisher William Henry Appleton, who enlarged the house in between 1866 and 1869 and again in 1890, and added greenhouses and gardens to the grounds.</p><br>
<p>The house was purchased in 1903 by George Walbridge Perkins, a partner of J. P. Morgan, along with adjacent property, including Glyndor, a house built by the Harriman family in 1888, which later burned down and was rebuilt in 1927. In 1910, Perkins added an underground building for recreation which included a bowling alley. Perkins performed extensive landscaping on the site and leased Wave Hill House to an eminent ichthyologist, Bashford Dean of the American Museum of Natural History, who built a stone addition to the building as a private museum, Armor Hall.</p><br>
<p>Other famous residents of the estate included the conductor Arturo Toscanini (1942–1945) and chief members of the British Delegation to the United Nations (1950–1956).</p><br>
<p>In 2005, Wave Hill was among 406 New York City arts and social service institutions to receive part of a $20 million grant from the Carnegie Corporation, which was made possible through a donation by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg.</p><br>
<p>On an annual basis, about 65,000 people visit Wave Hill, making it one of the most popular sites in Riverdale.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>Wave Hill&#39;s formal gardens feature a variety of plants, usually based on type. Garden areas include:</p><br>
<p>The T. H. Everett Alpine House, named for Thomas H. Everett, who advocated for the preservation and restoration of Wave Hill as a New York City Landmark and who was mentor to its founding Director of Horticulture, Marco Polo Stufano</p><br>
<p>Herb and Dry Gardens</p><br>
<p>Aquatic & Monocot Garden</p><br>
<p>Bee hives in the woodland area</p><br>
<p>The Herbert & Hyonja Abrons Woodland, 10 acre of native second-growth forest, with a woodland path that stretches around the perimeter of the property</p><br>
<p>The Marco Polo Stufano Conservatory—including a cactus room, a tropical room, and a palm room</p><br>
<p>The Perennial Flower Garden</p><br>
<p>Pergola and vistas of the Hudson River and the New Jersey Palisades</p><br>
<p>Special Collections, including the Shade Border, Elliptical Garden and Conifer Slope</p><br>
<p>Wild Garden</p><br>
<p>Additionally, Wave Hill&#39;s gardens is a hotspot for birding in New York City, with 127 species to date — including ruby-throated hummingbirds, great blue herons, and bald eagles.</p><br>
<p>It also abuts Riverdale Park.</p><br>
<h2>Programs</h2><br>
<p>Wave Hill offers a variety of programming around horticulture, the arts, and education.</p><br>
<h2>Shop</h2><br>
<p>The Shop contains gifts from local artists as well as nature-themed and handmade items. The Shop is located in the Perkins Visitors Center.</p><br>
<h2>Cafe and Terrace</h2><br>
<p>The Cafe is located in the Wave Hill House and offers a variety of hot and cold foods. The Cafe includes indoor eating areas and access to the Kate French Terrace located behind the Wave Hill House.</p><br>
<p>The John Bowne House is a house at 3701 Bowne Street in Flushing, Queens, New York City, that is known for its role in establishing religious tolerance in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Built around 1661, it was the location of a Quaker meeting in 1662 that resulted in the arrest of its owner, John Bowne, by Peter Stuyvesant, Dutch Director-General of New Netherland. Bowne successfully appealed his arrest to the Dutch West India Company and established a precedent for religious tolerance and freedom in the colony. His appeal helped to serve as the basis for the later guarantees of freedom of religion, speech and right of assembly in the Constitution.</p><br>
<p>Many of John Bownes descendants engaged in abolitionist anti-slavery activism. For example, Johns great-grandson Robert Bowne was an early founder with Alexander Hamilton and others of the Manumission Society of New York in 1784. Some of its residents such as Mary Bowne Parsons&#39; son William B. Parsons have also been documented as acting as conductors assisting fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad prior to the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The home is a wood-frame Anglo-Dutch Colonial saltbox, notable for its steeply pitched roof with three dormers. The house was altered several times over the centuries, and several generations of the Bowne family lived in the house until 1945, when the family deeded the property to the Bowne Historical Society. The Bowne House became a museum in 1947. The exterior has since been renovated. Archaeological investigations have been conducted by Dr. James A. Moore of Queens College, City University of New York.</p><br>
<p>The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977,</p><br>
<p>The George F. Barton House was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, built 1903–1904, and is located at 118 Summit Avenue in Buffalo, New York. The Barton House is part of the larger Darwin D. Martin House Complex, considered to be one of the most important projects from Wright&#39;s Prairie School era.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The complex was commissioned by Darwin D. Martin, an entrepreneur who worked at the Larkin Soap Company. The site was purchased by Martin in 1902 as a location where he planned to build two houses: one for himself, and one for his sister, Delta Martin Barton, and her husband, George F. Barton.</p><br>
<p>Martin and Barton were colleagues at the Larkin Company, and Wright also designed houses for other Larkin employees William R. Heath and Walter V. Davidson, as well as the Larkin Company&#39;s administration building.</p><br>
<p>Of the Martin Complexs six buildings construction on the Barton House began first and not only was it the first building of the complex to be completed but also the first of Wrights in Buffalo.</p><br>
<p>The Barton House is on the north east corner of the complex.</p><br>
<p>The basic floor plan is cruciform, with the principal living spaces concentrated in the center two-story portion of the house where the reception, living and dining areas open into each other. The two main bedrooms are on the second story, at either end of a narrow hall. The kitchen is at the north end, behind the main stairway, while an open porch is to the south.</p><br>
<p>Wright&#39;s K. C. DeRhodes House in South Bend, Indiana, has a nearly identical floor plan to the Barton House—although on a 90-degree axis in relation to the front veranda. The F.B. Henderson House in Elmhurst, Illinois is also similar in plan.</p><br>
<p>The Martin House Restoration Corporation operates guided public tours and presents educational programs for both volunteers and the general public.</p><br>
<p>The Bryn Mawr Historic District  is on the lakefront of the Edgewater neighborhood of far-north Chicago, Illinois. It extends along Bryn Mawr Avenue between Broadway and Sheridan Road. Its most prominent features are the Belle Shore Apartment Hotel, Bryn Mawr Apartment Hotel, Edgewater Beach Apartments, Edgewater Presbyterian Church, Manor House, and the northernmost area of Lincoln Park.</p><br>
<p>Old fashioned green lanterns and lamp posts, reminiscent of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, line the Bryn Mawr Historic District streets, adorned with green banners and gold lettering proudly proclaiming the neighborhood&#39;s historic significance. It was declared a historic district by the Chicago City Council due to the presence of several Chicago Landmark sites.</p><br>
<p>Bryn Mawr Avenue was named in the 1880s by Edgewater developer John Lewis Cochran after Bryn Mawr station on the Main Line north of Philadelphia. Bryn Mawr is Welsh for Big Hill.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<h3>Bryn Mawr & Belle Shore Apartment Hotels</h3><br>
<p>Built between 1928 and 1929, this pair of detailed buildings are symbolic of the rapid growth and expansion of Chicago in the 1920s and the commercial development of Bryn Mawr Avenue and the surrounding community. Situated across the street from each another, the buildings both feature extensive and lavish use of decorative terracotta. The 12-story Bryn Mawr is dressed in white terracotta designed in a late Gothic Revival style, while the 8-story Belle Shore is clad in rich green and cream terracotta and features Egyptian-like Art Deco designs.</p><br>
<p>Designated a Chicago Landmark on November 6, 2002.</p><br>
<h3>Manor House</h3><br>
<p>The 1907 Manor House residential complex was built by John Edmund Oldaker Pridmore in the Tudor Revival style. It features two symmetrical wings, each with a large turret. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Edgewater Beach Apartments</h3><br>
<p>This structure, dating to 1928, is the extension wing of a lavish hotel complex, the Edgewater Beach Hotel. Although once popular with celebrities and the elite, the extension of the Lake Shore Drive cut the hotel from the beach and led to its demolition. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>The Renaissance</h3><br>
<p>This 17-story building is built in a Renaissance Revival style and was sold as apartment dwelling for the well-to-do.</p><br>
<p>The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Morristown National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park, headquartered in Morristown, New Jersey, consisting of four sites important during the American Revolutionary War: Jockey Hollow, Ford Mansion, Fort Nonsense, and Washington&#39;s Headquarters Museum.</p><br>
<p>The sites are located in Morristown and Harding Township, both in Morris County, and in Bernardsville in Somerset County.</p><br>
<p>With its establishment on March 2, 1933, Morristown became the country&#39;s first National Historical Park. On October 15, 1966, citing its significance in archeology, architecture, and military history, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Sites</h2><br>
<p>Jockey Hollow, a few miles south of Morristown, New Jersey along Route 202 in Harding Township, was the site of a Continental Army encampment. It was from here that the entire Pennsylvania contingent mutinied and later, 200 New Jersey soldiers attempted to emulate them.</p><br>
<p>Fort Nonsense occupied a high hilltop overlooking Morristown, and is believed to have been the site of a signal fire and earthworks.</p><br>
<p>Ford Mansion in Morristown was the site of the "hard winter" (December 1779 – May 1780) quarters of George Washington and the Continental Army. That winter remains the coldest on record for New Jersey. Theodosia Ford, widow of Jacob Ford Jr., and her four children shared their household with Washington, his staff, including Alexander Hamilton, their servants and sometimes their family members. Martha Washington traveled from Mount Vernon to Morristown to spend the winter with her husband.</p><br>
<p>Washington&#39;s Headquarters Museum, the adjacent museum is open to the public Wednesday thru Sunday from September–June and seven days a week from July- August from 9:30 AM to 5:00 PM. The museum has three exhibit rooms and a sales area. A video production, Morristown: Where America Survived (New Jersey Network, 2009) is shown. The Ford Mansion is shown only by guided tour, which begins in the museum.</p><br>
<p>The New Jersey Brigade Encampment Site is located south of Jockey Hollow in Bernardsville in Somerset County. It was the encampment for approximately 1,300 Continental Army soldiers over the 1779-1780 winter.</p><br>
<h2>Park history</h2><br>
<p>In April 1932, the National Park Service (NPS) published a report recommending that the site of the Continental Army&#39;s winter encampments in 1776-77 and 1779-80 become a Federal Historical Reserve; the report recommended including two sites, Jockey Hollow and the Ford Mansion.</p><br>
<p>In January 1933, a conference including NPS representatives, the USA Secretary of the Interior, and civic and business leaders from the Morris County area, drafted a bill supporting the creation of a national historical park, with "the rank and dignity equal to the scenic program in the West."</p><br>
<p>The bill for creating the Morristown National Historical Park was submitted to Congress in mid-January (H.R. 14302; S. 5469) and was supported by USA Secretary of the Interior Ray Lyman Wilbur, who called it "the most important park project before this department at the present time."</p><br>
<p>In March 1933, in the last days of Herbert Hoovers presidency, the 72nd Congress established Morristown as the countrys first National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>Chota  is a historic Overhill Cherokee town site in Monroe County, Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. Developing after nearby Tanasi, Chota  was the most important of the Overhill towns from the late 1740s until 1788. It replaced Tanasi as the de facto capital, or mother town of the Cherokee people.</p><br>
<p>A number of prominent Cherokee leaders were born or resided at Chota, among them Attakullakulla, Oconostota, Old Hop, Old Tassel, Hanging Maw, and Nancy Ward.</p><br>
<p>The former Chota and Tanasi sites are listed together on the National Register of Historic Places; Tanasi also has an archaeological site designation (40MR62) assigned in 1972. Since 1979, both sites have been mostly submerged by the Tellico Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River. Archeological excavations were conducted before the dam was completed.</p><br>
<p>During the excavations, the site of the Chota townhouse was found. Major Cherokee towns were centered around a large townhouse or council house, the site of community meetings of hundreds of people. These were usually built on top of an existing platform mound in the center of the town. These earthworks had typically been built by ancestral peoples of the South Appalachian Mississippian or earlier cultures.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the flooding of Tellico Reservoir, the Chota townhouse site was raised above the reservoir&#39;s operating levels and connected via a causeway to the mainland. The Chota monument, situated directly above the ancient townhouse site, consists of eight pillars &mdash;one for each of the seven Cherokee clans, and one for the nation. The grave of Chief Oconostota, found in the 1969 excavations, was re-interred next to the monument. This site is now managed by the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, based in Cherokee, North Carolina.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Little Tennessee River enters Tennessee from its source in the Appalachian Mountains and flows for just over 50 mi through parts of Blount, Monroe, and Loudon counties before joining the Tennessee River near present-day Lenoir City. Tellico Lake, created by the completion of Tellico Dam in 1979, spans the lower 33 mi of the river. The Chota site is located approximately 27 mi above the mouth of the river, opposite a sharp bend in the river known as Bacon&#39;s Bend.</p><br>
<p>Both Chota and Tanasi were developed by the Cherokee on a relatively flat terrace along the river, flanked by steep hills rising to the south. These hills are part of the Appalachian Ridge-and-Valley Physiographic Province, which is characterized by narrow, elongated ridges and steep hills. The Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains, both part of the main Appalachian crest, rise a few miles to the southeast and southwest, respectively.</p><br>
<p>The Tanasi and Chota monuments are located just off Highway 360 (Citico Road) on Bacon Ferry Road, which ends in a cul-de-sac parking lot. A short, maintained trail connects the parking lot to the Chota monument.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Rise of Chota</h3><br>
<p>Tanasi is first mentioned in early 18th-century documents as the base or destination of various English colonial traders and diplomats. Tanasi appears on multiple maps of the Overhill territory produced in the 1720s and 1730s, but Chota does not. This suggests that Chota may have been part of Tanasi, or may not have been considered a town before the 1740s. In the 1720s, the head man of Tanasi&mdash; known simply as the "Tanasi Warrior"&mdash; was the chief of the Overhill towns in what is now Tennessee, and the Middle and Valley towns in Western North Carolina. Chota does not appear in historical records until around 1745.</p><br>
<p>In 1730, however, Moytoy of Tellico, with the help of English emissary Alexander Cuming, was crowned "Emperor of the Cherokee." This effectively shifted the overall capital to his town of Great Tellico, where Moytoy was chief. When Moytoy died in 1741, his son, Amouskositte, attempted to succeed him as emperor. But Conocotocko, called Old Hop by the English, was the head man at Chota and began to consolidate power. By 1753 Chota had usurped Great Tellico as the "mother town" of the Overhill Cherokee.</p><br>
<p>Around this time, on the eve of the French and Indian War, the Cherokee were reportedly leaning toward the French side, prompting the English colonies of Virginia and South Carolina to increase contact with leaders of the Overhill towns in order to strengthen an alliance. Virginia sent Major Andrew Lewis with 60 men to build a fort at Chota, which was completed in August 1756. It was never garrisoned because the Cherokee allied with the English against the French. Later that year, South Carolina sent engineer William de Brahm with 300 men to build Fort Loudoun, which was completed on the Little Tennessee River in March 1757.</p><br>
<p>By 1760, relations between the British and Cherokee had soured, erupting into open conflict by February. After Cherokee warriors laid siege to Fort Loudoun, a confrontation between 14 Cherokee hostages at Fort Prince George and the fort&#39;s garrison on February 16 resulted in the death of the hostages. After several months, the Fort Loudoun garrison surrendered. The Cherokee killed many of them as they struggled to return to Virginia, and took plunder from the fort to Chota.</p><br>
<h3>Timberlake&#39;s visit, 1761-62</h3><br>
<p>After the fall of Fort Loudoun, British forces launched another offensive against the Cherokee, and the Overhill towns sued for peace. This was granted in the Treaty of Long Island in 1761. Virginia authorities dispatched a friendship delegation led by colonist and military officer Henry Timberlake to solidify peace with the Overhill towns. He reached Chota in late December 1761, accompanied by Ostenaco (the head Cherokee man at Tomotley). At a ceremony inside the Chota townhouse, Ostenaco ceremoniously buried a hatchet, symbolizing peace between the British and Cherokee, and the parties smoked ritual tobacco in peace pipes. Timberlake spent the night in Old Hop&#39;s "hot-house" (a circular dwelling used by the Overhill Cherokee in cooler months) before proceeding to Citico the next day.</p><br>
<p>Timberlake kept a journal, which was published posthumously as his memoirs. He also made a detailed map of the Cherokee towns along the river, entitled "Draught of the Cherokee Country". It recorded 52 dwellings and a townhouse at Chota. He listed chiefs, the number of warriors, and general population for each of the major towns. Conocotocko (Old Hop) was listed as governor of both Chota and Tanasi. The 175 warriors available at Chota made up the second-largest contingent among the Overhill towns, behind only Citico.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>At the outbreak of the American Revolution, the Cherokee aligned with the British, hoping to expel American colonists from their territory. In 1776, Dragging Canoe (the head man at Mialoquo), Old Abraham of Chilhowee, and The Raven led an unsuccessful three-pronged attack against Heatons station, Fort Watauga, and Carters Valley, respectively. In response, Virginia sent Colonel William Christian to subdue the Overhill towns. Christians force entered the Little Tennessee Valley unopposed and negotiated a truce with chiefs Attakullakulla (Dragging Canoes father) and Oconastota. When Dragging Canoe refused to negotiate, however, Christian destroyed the towns of Great Tellico, Citico, Mialoquo, Chilhowee, and Toqua.</p><br>
<p>In 1780, John Sevier, who had just returned from the Battle of Kings Mountain, led an invasion of the Overhill country in response to several attacks by Cherokee on American settlements. His party destroyed most of the remaining Overhill towns, including their capital, Chota.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee rebuilt Chota by 1784, but it never recovered its former status. In 1788, Old Tassel—who had become the leader of the Overhill towns—was murdered with another chief by Americans under a flag of truce at Chilhowee. Largely in response to this atrocity, the Chickamauga Cherokee moved their capital further south to Ustanali, near what developed as modern Calhoun, Georgia.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1790s, the Duke of Orleans paid a visit to the American fort known as Tellico Blockhouse while on a tour of East Tennessee. There the duke watched more than 600 Cherokees engage in a ritual "ballplay" at Chota; he bet six gallons of brandy on the outcome. By this time, only five dwellings remained standing in the town.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>In the 1880s, Cyrus Thomas, working for the Smithsonian Institution, conducted a survey of ancient earthwork mounds in the Little Tennessee Valley. Thomas excavated a mound at the Chota site and uncovered several artifacts. The site was undisturbed for decades.</p><br>
<p>In 1939, a University of Tennessee team, mainly under the auspices of Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneburg, conducted excavations at the Chota site. Laborers were paid by the Works Projects Administration during the Great Depression. Their findings, which Lewis and Kneburg hoped would provide comparison data for their Hiwassee Island findings, included 85 pit features, 12 burials, and one structure.</p><br>
<p>After the Tennessee Valley Authority announced plans in 1967 to build Tellico Dam, which would flood several historic Cherokee sites, the University of Tennessee initiated a plan to conduct salvage archeological excavations throughout the Little Tennessee Valley. Excavations were conducted at Chota between 1969 and 1974, as litigation stalled the dam project. The excavations uncovered 783 features (mostly refuse pits), the postmold layouts of 31 structures, and 91 burials. Burial 10, uncovered in 1969, was identified by its grave goods (namely a pair of wire spectacles) as that of Chief Oconostota. Thousands of stone and ceramic artifacts were uncovered, including projectile points dating to the Archaic period (8000–1000 B.C.).</p><br>
<p>The structures uncovered at Chota included two townhouses, one of which had a diameter of 60 ft and another a diameter of just over 50 ft. The smaller townhouse, which was slightly older, may have been the Tanasi townhouse. Other structures included a 48 ft x 23 ft summer pavilion flanked by a 100 ft x 160 ft village plaza, and 11 rectangular summer dwelling/circular winter dwelling pairings. Dwellings were spaced between 40 ft and 100 ft apart and were located up to 2,000 ft from the townhouse. One of the dwellings was classified as Early Mississippian culture (c. 1000–1300 A.D.), while the others were historic Cherokee.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, the burials revealed at the Chota site were reinterred in a burial mound at the Sequoyah Museum, near Vonore. The exception was the remains of Oconostota, which were buried next to the Chota monument over the townhouse site, as desired by the Cherokee.</p><br>
<h2>Chota monument</h2><br>
<p>The eight pillars stand for the seven clans and one for the Cherokee nation as a whole.</p><br>
<p>Tanasi  was a historic Overhill settlement site in present-day Monroe County, Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. The village became the namesake for the state of Tennessee. It was abandoned by the Cherokee in the 19th century for a rising town whose chief was more powerful. Tanasi served as the de facto capital of the Overhill Cherokee from as early as 1721 until 1730, when the capital shifted to Great Tellico.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee town of Chota developed immediately north of and later than Tanasi. The two sites were divided by an unnamed stream. By the 1740s, Chota had become the more prominent of the two towns, holding the townhouse where the community met, and chiefs would meet with colonial emissaries. Although Chota and Tanasi had distinct political, social, and demographic traits, research excavators in the late 1960s determined that the two towns are archaeologically indistinguishable. They were among the numerous Overhill Towns, as called by English colonists, who traveled over the Appalachian Mountains from the east to reach them. The two towns are grouped as a single listing on the National Register of Historic Places, although Tanasi was given its own site designation (40MR62) in 1972.</p><br>
<p>Both sites were submerged by the creation of Tellico Reservoir, after completion of a dam on the Little Tennessee River in 1979. Archeological surveys were conducted of these sites in the 1970s prior to their flooding, and thousands of artifacts were recovered.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s, the Tennessee Valley Authority placed a monument on the shoreline above the submerged site of Tanasi that commemorates its history and its legacy as the origin of the name Tennessee. This monument is approximately 7 mi southeast of Vonore, just off Highway 455 (Citico Road). The site is managed by the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Little Tennessee River flows northwestward from North Carolina from its source in the Appalachian Mountains in Georgia. It traverses a 40 mi stretch of northern Monroe County before emptying into the Tennessee River near Lenoir City. In 1979, the construction of Tellico Dam at the mouth of the river created a reservoir that spans the lower 33 mi of the Little Tennessee and the lower 22 mi of its tributary, the Tellico River, flooding former important Cherokee town sites. Tanasi was located along the west bank of the Little Tennessee 27 mi upstream from the rivers mouth. The site was opposite a sharp bend in the river known as Bacons Bend.</p><br>
<p>Tanasi was situated on a relatively flat terrace flanked by the river on one side and a series of high, steep hills on the other. These hills, noted on Timberlake&#39;s 1762 map, are part of the Appalachian Ridge-and-Valley Province, which spans much of the upper Tennessee Valley. The Appalachian Range proper rises a few miles south of the Chota-Tanasi site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tanasi first appears in the historical record in the early 18th century, at a time when the fur trade between the English and the Cherokee had grown to the extent that the colonists wanted to regulate it. Ethnologist James Mooney reported that the meaning of the town&#39;s name is unknown, but noted that it was used for other places among Cherokee lands in Tennessee and North Carolina. The Cherokee name for the river upon which Tanasi was situated was probably Callamaco. Early Euro-American explorers and traders renamed the river after Tanasi.</p><br>
<p>Among the earliest English traders to reside at Tanasi was Eleazar Wiggan&mdash; nicknamed "Old Rabbit" by the Cherokee&mdash; who operated out of Tanasi as early as 1711. He also served as a guide for later colonial diplomats and emissaries.</p><br>
<p>In 1725, the province of South Carolina dispatched Colonel George Chicken to Tanasi to obtain Cherokee assistance in the colony&#39;s struggles with the Creek. Chicken indicated in his journals that the chief of Tanasi&mdash; known as the Tanasi Warrior or Head Warrior of Tanasi&mdash; ruled over the Cherokee Overhill, Middle, and Valley towns in the region. (But this would have been unusual. The designation of Middle and Valley Towns generally referred to groups of towns on the eastern side of the Appalachians in Western North Carolina. Kituwa was chief among the Middle Towns. Not only was Cherokee society highly decentralized and the towns generally exercised considerable autonomy under their own chiefs, but travel between these territories was difficult in the mountainous region.) Chicken recorded a speech in which the Tanasi Warrior pledged support for the English. The two later engaged in a pipe-smoking session in which the Tanasi Warrior told Chicken of recent Creek hostilities in the area. Colonel John Herbert visited Tanasi on a similar mission in 1727 and reported meeting with the "King and Long Warriour" of Tanasi at the Cherokee townhouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1730, Sir Alexander Cuming, a trader claiming to be an emissary of King George II, journeyed to Tanasi and obtained the Tanasi Warrior&#39;s allegiance for England. As evidence of his success, Cuming sought an esteemed symbolic headdress known as the Crown of Tanasi&mdash; described as resembling a wig made of dyed possum hair&mdash; which he hoped to present to the king of England. To obtain this headdress, Cuming enlisted the aid of Moytoy, chief of Great Tellico. Cuming used his flamboyance to convince the Cherokee to crown Moytoy "Emperor of the Cherokee." In exchange, Moytoy obtained the headdress sought by Cuming. Cuming departed for England shortly thereafter, taking with him a party that included Eleazar Wiggan, future Cherokee leader Attakullakulla, and two Tanasi warriors named Clogoittah and Oukanaekah to present to the king.</p><br>
<p>The crowning of Moytoy in 1730 shifted the Cherokee center of power to Great Tellico, which was situated along the Tellico River roughly 16 mi southwest of Tanasi. After the death of Moytoy in 1741, however, Old Hop, the chief of Chota, began to consolidate power. The influence of Chota soon overshadowed that of Tanasi, and by the early 1750s, Chota had become the more dominant town. In 1765, Henry Timberlake, who had visited the Overhill towns as an emissary in 1761–1762, reported 12 dwellings and 21 warriors at Tanasi, and identified Old Hop as chief of both Chota and Tanasi. In 1775, the Tanasi Warrior was among the chiefs who signed a treaty with the Watauga Association of Carolina colonists, who wanted to create an independent jurisdiction west of the mountains, in what became Tennessee.</p><br>
<h3>Tanasi&#39;s relationship with Chota</h3><br>
<p>Tanasi&#39;s relationship with Chota has long puzzled historians and archaeologists. Some have speculated that the two towns were a single community with two districts and two governments, not unlike the situation that reportedly existed in Great Tellico and Chatuga around the same time. Archeological excavators in the early 1970s noted virtually no differences in the types of cultural materials and features uncovered at the two village sites, which had developed on either side of a creek. 18th-century traders and diplomats, however, clearly identified these as two separate towns.</p><br>
<p>Tanasi was reported by Euro-American traders from their first explorations in the region in the early 18th century, but Chota does not appear in the historical record until around 1745. The maps of John Herbert and George Hunter, drawn in 1727 and 1730, respectively, show Tanasi but not Chota. In 1746, English agent George Pawley met with Cherokee leaders at the Chota townhouse, indicating Chota had usurped Tanasi as the more dominant town. Missionary William Richardson visited the Overhill towns in the late 1750s and described Chota and Tanasi as being separated by a "small river." Richardsons description is supported by Timberlakes 1762 map, which recorded the two towns&#39; sites.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological findings</h2><br>
<p>Cyrus Thomas, working for the Smithsonian Institution&#39;s Bureau of Ethnology in the late 1880s, conducted a mound survey at the Chota-Tanasi site. Thomas reported the discovery of 13 burials and several artifacts.</p><br>
<p>In 1939, Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneburg directed an excavation at the Chota-Tanasi site with funding by the Works Progress Administration to pay for laborers. Lewis and Kneburg, who were searching for cultural data with which to compare their earlier finds at Hiwassee Island, uncovered 22 burials, 85 pit features, 982 postmolds, and one structure.</p><br>
<p>With the sites threatened by flooding from a dam and reservoir project, between 1969 and 1974, University of Tennessee archaeologists conducted excavations at the Chota-Tanasi site to establish history and recover as many artifacts as possible. Two excavations—one in 1970 and one in 1972—were focused specifically on Tanasi.</p><br>
<p>Although artifacts dating to the Archaic period (and even a fluted projectile point dating to the Paleo-Indian period) were uncovered at the Chota-Tanasi sites, the excavations were focused mostly on the period of Cherokee occupation. Investigators hoped to identify the locations of each town and to find evidence that might define the Cherokee peoples&#39; relationship to those occupying the area in the South Appalachian Mississippian culture-era (c. 1000–1600 A.D.).</p><br>
<p>The 1972 excavations uncovered 191 features, 22 burials, 1005 postmolds, and 6 structures at the Tanasi site alone. Two townhouses were uncovered at the Chota-Tanasi sites, one of which was slightly smaller and older than the other. The older of the two townhouses may have been the Tanasi townhouse, which traders and emissaries had reported in the 1720s. However, it is also possible that the older townhouse was an earlier version of the Chota townhouse, and that excavators failed to uncover the Tanasi townhouse. The older townhouse had a diameter of just over 50 ft. In 1986, the remains of the 22 burials uncovered at Tanasi—along with those uncovered at Chota—were reinterred in a burial mound at the Sequoyah Museum near Vonore.</p><br>
<p>Fort Motte  was developed first as Mt. Joseph Plantation; it was commandeered in 1780 by the British and fortified as a temporary military outpost in what is now South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War. It was significant for its military use as a depot for their convoys between Camden and Charleston, which they occupied. The British had fortified the big house and surrounds, and it became known as Fort Motte, after Rebecca Brewton Motte, who had been occupying it with her family. During the Patriot Siege of Fort Motte, the plantation mansion was set on fire. The British surrendered at this site.</p><br>
<p>After the war, this site was considered for the capital of the newly formed state of South Carolina, before Columbia was chosen. Today Fort Motte is the name of an unincorporated village at the nearby crossroads of SH 419 and State Road S-9-13.</p><br>
<p>The former area of the plantation house and grounds is known as the Fort Motte Battlefield Site. Privately owned, it was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Cherokee Path is nearby, long used by indigenous peoples for trading and travel. The first Anglo-European colonists in the area were Scots and English traders, who established trading posts with the Cherokee and other regional Native American tribes. Some posts were fortified as early forts in the colonial period. Amelia Town was established in this area about 1735.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Joseph Plantation was built in 1767 as an up-country estate by Miles Brewton of Charleston, near the confluence of the Congaree and Wateree rivers.</p><br>
<p>His sister Rebecca Brewton Motte (1737-1815) inherited some of his property, including Mt. Joseph. She was widowed in 1780, when her husband Jacob died of illness. After the British appropriated the Miles Brewton House for their headquarters in Charleston, Motte left the city and moved to the relative safety of Mt. Joseph Plantation, 95 miles away.</p><br>
<p>They were living there when the British took over this property. After the military took over the mansion, the Motte family moved to the overseer&#39;s house. The British fortified the big house and its grounds.</p><br>
<p>A British garrison of regular, Hessian and Provincial forces occupied the plantation, using it as a depot for their convoys running between Camden and Charleston. Waterways were still the key as transportation routes. Mt. Joseph plantation was near a strategic river crossing of the Congaree River, which gave the British access to an important chain of transport from Charleston to points north and west.</p><br>
<p>By May 1781 the British had constructed wood and earth fortifications at Mt. Joseph: palisades (9 tall) and ramparts (10-11 wide), were faced with a 6 deep ditch in front. 20-30 from the ditch was a row of abatis. Defending the fortified mansion were 184 British regulars, Hessians, and Provincials under the command of Capt. Lt. Donald McPherson. It became known as Fort Motte, after Rebecca Brewton Motte.</p><br>
<p>General Francis "Swamp Fox" Marion and Colonel Henry Lee laid siege to the fortified site. Rebecca Motte became known for giving him arrows from East India which would ignite on impact. His forces shot flaming arrows into the roof to set it on fire and drove the British from it, and shot artillery to prevent soldiers from putting out the fire. Captain Lt. McPherson surrendered. "The British surrender of the fort alarmed Lord Rawdon and hastened his retreat from Camden to Charleston."</p><br>
<p>The South Carolina Department of Archives and History, the South Carolina Library, and the University of South Carolina have the earliest extant maps for this area. When cultivation of short-staple cotton became profitable at the turn of the nineteenth century, after the invention of the cotton gin, this upland area was developed for cotton as a commodity crop. The battlefield site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, considered important because of the military and other history from 1750-1799.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee Path  was the primary route of English and Scots traders from Charleston to Columbia, South Carolina in Colonial America. It was the way they reached Cherokee towns and territories along the upper Keowee River and its tributaries. In its lower section it was known as the Savannah River. They referred to these towns along the Keowee and Tugaloo rivers  as the Lower Towns, in contrast to the Middle Towns in Western North Carolina and the Overhill Towns in present-day southeastern Tennessee west of the Appalachian Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Cherokee Path was used by English and Scots traders based in Charles Town.</p><br>
<p>The path was mapped in 1730 by George Hunter, the Surveyor-General of the Province of South Carolina. He noted that it ran 145 mi from Charlestown to the Congarees, a fort at the confluence of the Saluda and Broad rivers. (This site later was designated as the state capital and named Columbia.) The Path continued across the western frontier to the colonial settlement of Ninety Six, indicated on the map by the number "96". The British constructed Fort Prince George near Cherokee Country.</p><br>
<p>It was a total of 302 mi from Charlestown to Keowee, the principal Cherokee town of what the colonists called the Lower Towns along the Keowee River and its tributaries (in present-day Oconee, Greenville, Pickens and Anderson counties), which extended into northeastern Georgia.</p><br>
<p>Later colonists developed a wagon road, called the Indian Trail (taken from the Cherokee Trail), that extended to near Orangeburg. In the 20th century, SC 3 was constructed, following much of this path to Monetta, South Carolina before going to Ninety Six. Remnants of both these original pathways are visible in many places to the side of the nearby modern roads that parallel them.</p><br>
<p>From Keowee, one path branched southwest into the Unaka Mountains, usually following the streams and valleys where Cherokee towns were located along the Keowee and Tugaloo rivers, to Clayton, Georgia. The main path continued to the Cherokee Middle Towns along the upper Little Tennessee River and its tributaries, where the later European-American settlements of Franklin and Murphy developed in North Carolina). Traders continued across the Appalachian Mountains to what were known as the Overhill Towns in eastern Tennessee, along the lower Little Tennessee and Tellico rivers.</p><br>
<p>During the French and Indian War, the British built Fort Loudoun, in 1756 at the confluence of the Tellico River and the lower Little Tennessee River, in present-day Monroe County, southeastern Tennessee. It was part of British support for the Cherokee, who were their allies for a period. But by 1760 there were armed confrontations between the two groups, and the Cherokee suffered some defeats. They sued for peace, and in 1762 Henry Timberlakes conducted a peace expedition to the Overhill Towns. was re-established in 1762.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolution, the Cherokee Path was used as a military road by rebel militia raised by the states of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia against the Cherokee, who had raided numerous frontier settlements in June 1776. In the fall of 1776 the groups of Rutherford&#39;s Light Horse expedition invaded the Cherokee towns throughout the region, attacking and destroying many towns in all three geographic groups. They were trying to suppress Cherokee warriors. During the Revolution, the Cherokee were allied with the British Loyalists, hoping to push the rebels out of their territory.</p><br>
<h2>Cherokee Path, Sterling Land Grant</h2><br>
<p>The Cherokee Path, Sterling Land Grant is a section of the historic path located near St. Matthews, Calhoun County, South Carolina. In 1704, George Sterling received a proprietary land grant for 570 acres of land along Ox Creek, later called Lyons Creek. He was one of the areas first European-American settlers in what was organized as the Orangeburg District and later Calhoun County. His family&#39;s plantation was often a stopping place for traders and other travelers along the Cherokee Path. Calhoun County is one of the few counties in South Carolina where portions of the original path remain visible. The site of the grant is a deserted, overgrown field dotted with scattered trees. Two acres, crossed by the Cherokee Path, is the portion of the Sterling Land Grant listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Present-day</h2><br>
<p>South Carolina Highway 11 (the Cherokee Foothills Scenic Highway) was constructed along or near some of the original path.</p><br>
<p>Indian Key Historic State Park is an island within the Florida State Park system, located just a few hundred yards southeast of USA 1 within the Florida Keys off of the Hawk Channel passage. The island was home to the town of Indian Key, Florida, in the middle of the 19th century but is now an uninhabited ghost town. It is frequently visited by tourists and is the subject of an archaeological project to uncover the historic building foundations.</p><br>
<p>The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Lowe Railway was the third in a series of scenic mountain railroads in the United States created as a tourist attraction on Echo Mountain and Mount Lowe, north of Los Angeles, California. The railway, originally incorporated by Thaddeus S. C. Lowe as the Pasadena and Mt. Wilson Railroad Co., existed from 1893 until its official abandonment in 1938, and was the only scenic mountain, electric traction  railroad ever built in the United States. Lowes partner and engineer was David J. Macpherson, a civil engineer graduate of Cornell University. The Mount Lowe Railway was a fulfillment of 19th century Pasadenans desire to have a scenic mountain railroad to the crest of the San Gabriel Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The Railway opened on July 4, 1893, and consisted of nearly 7 mi of track starting in Altadena, California, at a station called Mountain Junction. Atop Echo Mountain was a 70-room Victorian hotel, the Echo Mountain House. A short distance away stood the 40-room Echo Chalet, which was ready for opening day. Other buildings on Echo Mountain included an astronomical observatory, car barns, dormitories, repair facilities, a casino and dance hall, and a menagerie of local fauna.</p><br>
<p>For the seven years during which Lowe owned and operated the railway, it was not financially successful, and was eventually sold. A series of natural disasters destroyed the facilities, the first of which was a kitchen fire that destroyed the Echo Mountain House in 1900. Further fires and floods eventually destroyed any remaining facilities, and the railway was officially abandoned in 1938 after a flood washed railway property off the mountain sides. The ruins of Mount Lowe Railway remain. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 6, 1993, a listing that was enlarged in January 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Physical description</h2><br>
<p>The railway terminal, called Mountain Junction, was located at the corner of Lake Avenue and Calaveras Street in the unincorporated community of Altadena. The line was divided into three divisions: the Mountain Division, the Great Incline, and the Alpine Division. The mode of locomotion was electric traction railway, and a cable driven incline funicular. Electrical power for the railway consisted of several power generating stations equipped with either gas engines or Pelton wheels, depending on the availability of mountain water.</p><br>
<h3>Mountain Division</h3><br>
<p>The Mountain Division, originally built as a narrow gauge line, began with a trolley that ascended Lake Avenue to a turnoff near Las Flores Street, along a private right-of-way through the Poppyfields district, and proceeded into Rubio Canyon to the foot of Echo Mountain. Since this part of the line ran through the upper end of the residential community, it had station stops at Newkirk (Las Flores), Poppyfields, Hygeia (recovery hospital), and Roca before entering the Rubio Canyon. A transition bridge was installed to cross the Rubio Wash named Las Flores Bridge. At Rubio there was a large platform that spanned the canyon with an integrated 12-room hotel, the Rubio Pavilion. Other features at the pavilion were a series of stairways and bridges that ascended the canyon for viewing some eleven waterfalls, all of which were named. The Mountain Division&#39;s tracks were converted to in 1903.</p><br>
<h3>Great Incline</h3><br>
<p>From this platform passengers could transfer to a narrow gauge, three-railed inclined plane railway, the "Great Incline," and ascend Echo Mountain (elevation 3,250 ft). The Incline powering mechanism was designed by San Francisco cable car inventor Andrew Smith Hallidie. It had grades as steep as 62% and as slight as 48%, and gained 1,900 ft in elevation. The Great Incline was the first of its kind built with three rails and featuring a four-railed passing track at the halfway point. A particular feature on the Incline was the Macpherson Trestle named by Lowe for his engineer, David J. Macpherson, as was custom, and noted for its design in crossing a granite chasm over 150 ft deep.</p><br>
<h3>Echo Mountain</h3><br>
<p>Lowe wanted to make the mountains overlooking Altadena and Pasadena accessible to average citizens. After much planning, and many exploratory trips on horseback, he and his engineer, Thomas McPherson, located a series of routes that could be built upon with a series of rail cars to reach miles back into the forest and eventually all the way to the top of Mount Wilson. Financing the project himself, Lowe proceeded to build the railway which eventually reached the base of Mount Lowe (named after Lowe, previously known as Oak Mountain). At its peak, it was the top honeymoon destination in the United States. Beginning with the red car lines in California, Lowe extended the line up through the hills in Rubio Canyon where a small hotel was built at the base of new incline rail systems that would take a visitor up a mile along a ridge overlooking the Los Angeles Basin to the top of Echo Mountain.</p><br>
<p>The top of Echo Mountain had restaurants, stores, dormitories for employees, and a power generating station to power Echo Mountain facilities. There was also a trolley repair building and pit, observation decks at various spots, trails that could be hiked up and down the mountain and into the Alpine regions, tennis courts, stables and a zoo. The entire assembly of buildings were painted white and because of the view from far below, became known as "The White City in the sky". The "opera box" great incline cars were also white and could be seen from afar ferrying up and down the hill. On a ridge behind the Echo Mountain ridge was an observatory building with a working 16 in telescope housed in a round domed building. The extant foundations and cement telescope stand remain. Lowe intended to build the rail system all the way to the top of Mount Wilson along with additional hotels and facilities on the top. Later, much of the path of the large 100-inch telescope and observatory built on Mount Wilson was used to transport the delicate 100 in mirror to the top of Mount Wilson.</p><br>
<h3>Alpine Division</h3><br>
<p>The third division, the Alpine Division, opened in 1896 and consisted of 3.5 mi of narrow gauge track with 127 curves and 18 bridges and trestles. On this line there were three cars available for shuttling between Echo and the end-of-line, though only one car ever operated at a time due to electrical limitations, and there was no two-way traffic. The division spanned the broad face of Las Flores Canyon, rounded a promontory called the "Cape of Good Hope," traveled deep into Millard Canyon, reappeared at the front face of the mountain, and eventually disappeared into Grand Canyon where it terminated at the foot of Mount Lowe. This location was called Crystal Springs (elev. 4,995 ft) for a stream of water that poured from the hillside, and it was here that the last of the hotels, the 12-room Swiss-style chalet, "Ye Alpine Tavern," was built.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Lowe Railway was born from a desire of the Pasadena Pioneers to have a scenic mountain railroad to the crest of the San Gabriel Mountains. A trail had already been established to the peak of Mount Wilson, but that trip was arduous and often required more than a day to travel up and down. Several proposals were floated to establish some sort of mechanical transportation to the summits, but they all lacked funding.</p><br>
<p>David J. Macpherson (b. 1854, Ontario, Canada), a civil engineer from Cornell University and a newcomer to Pasadena (1885), proposed a steam driven cog wheel train to reach the crest via Mount Wilson. It wasnt until he was introduced to the millionaire Thaddeus S. C. Lowe (arrived in Pasadena 1890) that a fully funded plan could be put into action. The two men visited Colorado to view the mountain railway to Pikes Peak. Lowe was impressed with the trolley car systems in the city and thought that should be the way to go. This would make the Mount Lowe Railway the only electric traction rail line ever to be put into scenic mountain railway service.</p><br>
<h3>Incorporation</h3><br>
<p>The two men incorporated the Pasadena & Mount Wilson Railroad Co. in 1891 with intentions to build the railroad to Mount Wilson. Unable to obtain rights of way to Mt. Wilson, Macpherson suggested an alternate route, toward Oak Mountain, a high peak to the west of Mount Wilson. They hired electrical engineer, Almarian W. Decker, who had contrived all the mathematical possibilities of an electric line and the funicular which would be required to ascend the Echo Mountain Promontory.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<h4>Mountain Division</h4><br>
<p>Blasting into the Rubio Canyon began in September 1892, three months before the establishment of the San Gabriel Timberland Reserve (now Angeles National Forest). A terminal was built at the corner of Calaveras Street and Lake Avenue in Altadena adjacent to the L. A. Terminal Railway station, and a narrow gauge line was laid up the 8% grade to a point near Las Flores Street where it turned eastward traversing the Poppyfields district and headed into Rubio Canyon.</p><br>
<p>At the Rubio division terminus was built a broad platform to span the Canyon which included the Rubio Pavilion, a 12-room hotel, with dining facilities and other amenities. The pavilion also consisted of power generating facilities with the use of gas engines and Pelton waterwheels. Water was made available from reservoirs built in the canyon&#39;s streams, though water was not always plentiful year round. As part of the entertainment experience, Lowe had a series of stairways and bridges built over the streams and waterfalls that emanated from the canyon. The 11 waterfalls were individually named and today exist as local landmarks.</p><br>
<h4>The Great Incline</h4><br>
<p>Work was begun on the Great Incline, which featured such steep grades that no mule could be flogged enough into negotiating it. Instead, materials were carried up on the back of laborers; grading became a particular problem. While funiculars were usually considered to require four rails, two for the ascending car, and two for the descending car, there was not enough room to widen the grade to accommodate four rails. Over night the inventive Thaddeus Lowe came up with a plan to only use four rails where the cars pass each other and three rails on the upper and lower ends of the run, whereby the cars shared the center rail. The ingenious three-railed funicular not only fit, but it also reduced the amount of required materials. This three-railed design has been applied on other places as well (e.g. Angels Flight).</p><br>
<p>A great feat of engineering was realized with a trestle that was built to negotiate a 150 ft granite chasm across 250 ft of track on a 62% grade. The trestle was named, as was customary in railroad constructions, for the chief engineer, David Macpherson, thus, the Macpherson Trestle.</p><br>
<p>The Great Incline cable mechanism was engineered by Andrew Smith Hallidie of San Francisco cable car fame. It climbed 2,200 ft with approximately 6,000 ft of cable spliced into a complete loop which raised and lowered the cars of the Incline. At the Echo summit an incline powerhouse was erected to house the winding motor and gear works which powered the 9 ft grip wheel. The wheel consisted of 72 clamping "finger" mechanisms which bit down on the cable creating a smooth, non-slip actuation of the winding cable.</p><br>
<p>The cable was a 1+5/8 in steel cable spliced in two spots, one below each of the incline passenger cars and looped in a continuous strand around the grip wheel at the top of the incline and a tension wheel at the bottom. The cable was replaced every two or three years.</p><br>
<p>The incline grade changed three times from a steep 62% grade at the base to a gentler 48% grade at the top, but the cars were designed to comfortably adjust to the differences in grade. The incline was also equipped with a safety cable which ran through an emergency braking mechanism under each car and provided an emergency stopping of the cars within 15 ft should a failure of the main cable occur.</p><br>
<h4>Echo Mountain</h4><br>
<p>The Echo Mountain site was ready for opening day, July 4, 1893, with the 40-room "Echo Chalet." By November 1894 the 80-room Victorian "Echo Mountain House" was completed as a luxury facility to rival the Hotel Del Coronado in San Diego.</p><br>
<p>Lowe also installed a 16 in telescope and observatory on Echo, as he was a patron of the astronomical arts. He even sought to have the Mount Lowe Railway considered the astronomical center of the San Gabriels. He was even able to enlist astronomer Dr. Lewis Swift, whose reputation preceded him. Given the lack of light pollution in the area, Swift was able to discover some 95 new nebulae from the Echo vantage point. ("It could be noted that in an earlier 1892 plan, Charles William Eliot President of Harvard University sought to have a 40 in telescope put on Mt. Wilson. Lowe offered the use of his new Mount Wilson Railroad to transport the lenses up. However, the project benefactor died without leaving a trust, and the whole plan failed, and of course Lowes train didnt end up going to Mt. Wilson either").</p><br>
<p>Prof. Lowe&#39;s success was greatly drawn from his nationally renowned process of generating large amounts of hydrogen gas (see water gas). He had built a gas plant in Pasadena and had piped the gas some 8 mi to the top of Echo where there was a storage container seen in several earlier photographs. The technology, mainly used for heating and lighting, was soon replaced by electricity.</p><br>
<p>Echo Mountain also sported a menagerie (zoo) which housed several species of local fauna: lynxes, raccoons, snakes, squirrels, and even a black bear. Alongside the zoo was a dormitory and shop facility for maintenance of the trains.</p><br>
<p>Lowe purchased a three million candlepower searchlight from the Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893. The light was installed on Echo in 1894. So powerful was the light, that a claim by Lowes publicist, George Wharton James, stated that he could read a newspaper by the beam of the light coming through his hotel window on Catalina Island. Exaggeration or not, the beam from the light did have a 35 mi projection. Residents announcing their birthdays could have the light shone on their homes in the evening. It was also known to stir up a corral of horses, invade lovers’ privacy, and interrupt an evenings revival meeting. By the 1930s the light was considered a public nuisance and was shut off permanently.</p><br>
<h4>The Alpine Division</h4><br>
<p>A third division, the Alpine Division, was begun in 1894 and took a lengthy stretch of narrow gauge track across three canyons to the foot of Mount Lowe (formerly Oak Mountain). The line ran from alongside the incline landing where passengers could transfer directly to the next trolley. There were three trains available on this line, but the limited electrical power only allowed one at a time to travel. The line set out across the broad Las Flores Canyon which gave a tremendous panorama of the Los Angeles area below. At one point a tall trestle was required to bridge a broad and deep chasm with a bridge so named High Bridge.</p><br>
<p>At the ridge which separates Las Flores Canyon from Millard Canyon, the right of way was cut around a bluff named Cape of Good Hope. On the back side of the bluff was a section of straight track labeled "longest straight track 225 ft." From there the rails led deep into Millard Canyon before making a complete turnabout at Horseshoe Curve and heading back to the face of the mountain. Once again overlooking the valley, the train made a broad sweep around Circular Bridge. The design of the bridge, more a trestle, was to allow the trolley to negotiate a 12 ft switchback, over 500 ft of track, at a 4% grade in a 340° turn. The wooden structure resembled a section of roller coaster offering an awesome sight over the side of the car looking almost 100 ft straight down.</p><br>
<p>From the switchback the train made a return trip into Millard Canyon. At the transition point of Millard and Grand Canyons, construction was met by a large granite crag that required eight months of dynamiting and mucking to allow just enough passage for the narrow gauge cars. The site was named Granite Gate at 4,072 ft in elevation. The last stretch of track reached deep into Grand Canyon on a gentle grade that ended up at the foot of Mt. Lowe. There in a location called Crystal Springs, Lowe built a 12-room, Swiss chalet styled hotel named "Ye Alpine Tavern." It was also flanked by cottages and tent cabins to augment its occupancy. The Tavern boasted several amenities, such as a wading pool, tennis courts, mule rides, gift shop, restaurant, and a silver fox farm.</p><br>
<p>This spot marked the end of the line, nearly 7 mi from its starting point at Mountain Junction.</p><br>
<h2>Visitors</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Lowe Railway opened officially on July 4, 1893. Folks amassed themselves at the remote Mountain Junction. Up to this point there was only one means of public transportation from the valleys below to the hillside community of Altadena. It was the Los Angeles Terminal Railway which by this time was running from Terminal Island in San Pedro to Mountain Junction. The trains ran twice a day, and very irregularly at that, so the only sure means of getting to Altadena on time was by your own horse and buggy. This lack of transportation, coupled with Lowe&#39;s inability to establish any at all, would be in part the downfall of the railway.</p><br>
<p>Nevertheless, over its 45 years of existence, it is estimated that some 3 million people had ridden the railway, many coming from all parts of the country and the world. In its own inimitable way, it was a Disneyland of the day. Lowe had two favorite days of the year, Independence Day and Christmas, during which he would mark special events of his lifetime. A publication which emanated from the Tavern daily was the Echo, a preprinted newspaper with a blank page that had the names and home states of the daily arrivals surprinted. The four-page tabloid had three pages of biographical information on the railroad and other announcements of daily events.</p><br>
<p>At the top of the incline was perched Charles Lawrence, the official photographer, on a special scaffold from which he would take pictures of the arriving visitors. For 25 cents, visitors could purchase a souvenir photo of their arrival on the incline car, with everyone else aboard, of course. George Wharton James, Lowe&#39;s publicist, had his own publication which touted the railway in its conception, construction, and operation.</p><br>
<p>Megaphones, called "echophones", were installed on Mount Echo through which visitors could bellow into the back canyons and receive a number of echoes. The "sweet spot" where the most repeaters could be heard had at least nine reverberations of anything that was shouted loud enough. The study of the sweet spot has even been used as boy scout projects.</p><br>
<p>Along the way in Millard Canyon, a special station stop was made at Dawn Station above the Dawn Mines, an old gold mining operation. The mines were deep in the canyon and visitors stopping off to see the digs spent an exorbitant amount of time getting back to the train. A false pit was dug just a hundred feet below the track to trick people into thinking they had visited the mine and were shortly ready to return to the train.</p><br>
<p>The mountain itself offered a grand display of nature and hiking trails, plus a mule ride, the "Mount Lowe Eight," that transported guests around a trail. This trail made a large figure eight traverse of Mt. Lowe and Mount Echo, starting and ending at the Alpine Tavert without ever traversing the same terrain twice.</p><br>
<p>In 1922 Henry Ford visited the Mount Lowe Railway and returned with a Hollywood filming crew who made a silent film documentary of the trip with the camera mounted on the various cars, including the Great Incline. A reel containing 618 ft of this historic film is available at the Library of Congress.</p><br>
<h2>Troubled times</h2><br>
<p>In all, there were four hotels along the line, but the extent of the construction and the poor patronage had stretched Lowe to his limit. By 1898 the railroad fell into receivership under Jared Sidney Torrance, founder of Torrance, California. Both men applied to the government for rights of way to the top of Mt. Lowe. The government realized that the whole railroad was on Federal property (vis-à-vis the San Gabriel Timberland Reserve) and demanded that a proper lease be taken out on the properties. Having reviewed Lowe&#39;s standing with the railway, Congress awarded the receivership to Torrance in 1899, and Lowe was left with only the title to the observatory. It was at this time that the railway was reorganized and incorporated as the Mount Lowe Railway. The railway was sold at auction to a Mr. Valentine Peyton of Danville, Illinois, who personally came to California to run the operation.</p><br>
<h3>Disasters strike</h3><br>
<p>In 1900, the Echo Mountain House burned down. It was grossly under-insured and was never rebuilt. Later, the astronomer Dr. Swift went blind and was forced to leave his post at the observatory. A second astronomer, Prof. Edgar Lucien Larkin (1847–1925), was hired to oversee the observatory. Though he was not as prominent as Prof. Swift, he did stay with the Mount Lowe Observatory until his sudden death in 1925. Disenchanted, Peyton sold the railway to Henry E. Huntington, after which it became part of the Pacific Electric Railway (PE), of the famed Los Angeles Red Car system.</p><br>
<p>Part of the PE improvements included a "casino" on Echo Mountain. The building appears in a few rare photos and was described as a dance hall, not a gambling facility. Most historians believe that the casino was built only a few months before the fire of 1905. The blaze began when a forceful wind blew the roof from the casino onto the power generating station across the track, setting a fire that razed everything on Echo except the observatory and the astronomer&#39;s cabin. The only part of the Echo operation that was restored was the Incline Powerhouse in 1906. Other improvements were made to the railway, such as the replacement of rock pile footings under each trestle with reinforced concrete pilings.</p><br>
<p>In 1909, an unseasonable electrical storm and flash flood destroyed the Rubio Pavilion and buried one of the caretakers’ children in the mud. The injured parents spent years in the hospital recuperating from the devastation that left them trapped in the rubble of the Pavilion. Three of the children, who knew how to move the incline cars, escaped to the top of the incline.</p><br>
<p>In 1928 a strong Santa Ana Wind blew down the observatory. Its curator at the time, Mt. Lowe photographer Charles Lawrence, escaped the collapse within an inch of his life. Fortunately, he had the foresight to pack up the expensive lens pieces ahead of time. The instrument has since been reinstalled at Santa Clara University.</p><br>
<p>In 1925 a large block brick annex was added to "Ye Alpine Tavern" and the facility was renamed "Mount Lowe Tavern." In September 1936 the tavern burned to the ground from an electrical fire. The PE was officially out of business, but left train operators on the line, so as not to abandon the railway. Though there was a slight consideration to rebuild, lack of water, poor area for relocation, and the financial burden of construction and insurance left the PE all but giving up on the Mount Lowe Railway.</p><br>
<p>In December, 1937, the Railroad Booster&#39;s Club, enthusiasts of the PE Railroad, requested a final paid excursion on the line for photos and memorabilia. A few months later, in March, 1938 a three-day deluge of rain destroyed what was left of the railway and stranded the caretakers on Echo for 17 days. Following this disaster, the railway was officially abandoned.</p><br>
<h3>Dismantling</h3><br>
<p>The Red Car line ran into Altadena until 1941. At the onset of World War II, the dismantling of the Mount Lowe Railway was contracted to a scrapper who stripped the railway of all salvageable materials. In 1959 the Forestry service began dynamiting the remains of buildings as "hazardous nuisances." In 1962 the Incline Powerhouse was dynamited, but the gear mechanism was placed as a monument to the enterprise.</p><br>
<h2>Historical landmark</h2><br>
<p>In 1992 a committee of the Pacific Railroad Society, successors to the Railroad Boosters, began a project of "revealment" which, under the supervision of Mike McIntyre, Angeles National Forest archaeologist, sought to uncover the ruins of Echo Mountain. On January 6, 1993, the Mount Lowe Railway was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and the Forestry Service dedicated a block of land for the monument that would encompass all the artifacts from the railroad. On July 4, 1993, a centennial celebration was held on Mount Echo, and a separate celebration was held on Macpherson Parkway in the Poppyfields district. Today care of the artifacts and other restorative projects are being carried out by the Scenic Mount Lowe Railway Historical Committee under the leadership of Brian Marcroft and John Harrigan. The committee has become a group of uniformed forestry volunteers who continue to work closely with the forestry headquarters in Arcadia, California.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 Stacey Camp began an archaeological dig on a section of Mount Echo where there once stood a barrack for workers. The dig is part of Camp&#39;s Doctoral thesis and has come about by a grant from Stanford University and is also being coordinated with the Forestry Service.</p><br>
<p>Eleutherian College, founded as Eleutherian Institute in 1848, was a school founded by local anti-slavery Baptists at Lancaster in Jefferson County. The institute&#39;s name comes from the Greek word eleutheros, meaning "freedom and equality." The school admitted students without regard to ethnicity or gender, including freed and fugitive slaves. Its first classes began offering secondary school instruction on November 27, 1848. The school was renamed Eleutherian College in 1854, when it began offering college-level coursework. It closed in 1874 and its main building was used for a private normal school and then a public high school. It is now home to a non-profit group. The school was the second college in the United States west of the Allegheny Mountains and the first in Indiana to provide education to students of different colors. The restored three-story stone chapel and classroom building was constructed between 1853 and 1856 and presently serves as a local history museum. The school was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993 and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1997,</p><br>
<p>In the decade before the American Civil War, African-American students comprised approximately one quarter to one third of the institutes total enrollment, with its peak years between 1855 and 1861. At one time during this period its enrollment reached 150 students; however, attendance soon declined and no black students were enrolled at the school after 1861. During the Civil War the colleges grounds were used for military training and its main building were used for meetings and concerts. The college closed in 1874, but the main building was used as a private high school and teachers&#39; training school until 1887, when the Lancaster township trustees purchased the building for use as a public school, which closed in 1938. Historic Madison, a Jefferson County preservation organization, received the school as a gift in 1973 and sold it to its present owners in 1990. The new owners formed Historic Eleutherian College Inc., a non-profit group, in 1996. The main building has been restored to reflect an 1850s-era appearance.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Reverend Thomas Craven, a visiting Baptist minister who studied at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, is credited with proposing the idea for the school. He was also an abolitionist and an early advocate of an integrated educational system. Following his advice, several members of Neil&#39;s Creek Abolitionist Baptist Church established the Eleutherian Institute, its initial name, at Lancaster, Indiana, in 1848. Much of the initial organizing done by the extended Hoyt-Whipple family.</p><br>
<p>From the 1830s to the 1860s the unincorporated community of Lancaster, about 10 mi northwest of Madison in Jefferson County, Indiana, was known for its anti-slavery sentiment. Some members of the local community established the Neils Creek Anti-Slavery Society in 1839 and the Neils Creek Abolitionist Baptist Church in 1846. Neils Creek was located about 3 mi west of Lancaster, a major stop for fugitive slaves along the Underground Railroad route as they traveled north from Madison on the Ohio River to Indianapolis, Indiana. Several abolitionist families in the area, including some members of the schools board of trustees, were active participants in the Underground Railroad. The community&#39;s abolitionist church and anti-slavery sentiments also made Lancaster a good place to establish an integrated school.</p><br>
<p>Eleutherian Institute admitted students without regard to ethnicity or gender, including freed and fugitive slaves. The institute&#39;s name comes from the Greek word eleutheros, meaning "freedom and equality". Its first classes began offering secondary school instruction on November 27, 1848, with fifteen students gathering in an old meetinghouse near Lancaster.</p><br>
<p>Reverend John G. Craven, the son of Reverend Thomas Craven, served as the schools first teacher. John C. Thompson, Thomas Cravens son-in-law, served as a teacher for the first year, but he returned to Ohio when the school was unable to financially support two teachers. Reverend John Craven was principal of the school until 1861, then moved to Minnesota. James and Lucy Nelson maintained the school&#39;s dormitory in the days before the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Reverend Thomas Craven donated the land for the schools campus at Lancaster, where two new building were erected atop College Hill in the 1850s, a dormitory, circa 1854, and the stone chapel and classroom building, which was constructed between 1854 and 1856. A log cabin on the property once served as John Cravens home, but no longer exists. In addition to donating land, Reverend Thomas Craven also solicited funds to support the school and recruited students to increase its enrollment.</p><br>
<p>The institute was renamed Eleutherian College in 1854, when it began offering college-level coursework, making it the second college in the United States west of the Allegheny Mountains (Oberlin College was first) and the first in Indiana to provide interracial education. In the decade prior to the Civil War, African-American students comprised approximately one quarter to one third of its total enrollment, although enrollment of black students was never large. Some of its African-American students came from as far south as New Orleans, Louisiana, and Jackson, Mississippi, but most of them came from Kentucky. The school&#39;s peak years were 1855 to 1861. At one time during this period its enrollment reached 150 students. Some sources indicate that by 1860 the college enrolled 200 students, including 50 African Americans, some of whom had come from the Deep South despite fugitive slave laws and an amendment to the state constitution prohibited African-American migration into the state. Overall enrollment declined to 112 students in 1857—58 and dropped to 109 students in 1859, including 18 African-American students, 10 of whom were born into slavery.</p><br>
<p>In 1860, two hundred students were enrolled, 50 of them African-American. No black students were enrolled at the school after 1861.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, some of the schools former students who enlisted in the 6th Indiana Infantry Regiment participated in the military training held on the Eleutherian Colleges grounds. In addition, the college&#39;s buildings were used for meetings and concerts during the war.</p><br>
<p>After John Craven left the school in 1861, William Brand served as its principal until 1866, followed by several successors. The college closed in 1874; however, John Craven returned to the school in 1878 to help revive it as a private high school and teachers&#39; training school. Craven stayed at the school until 1887. Lancaster township trustees purchased the main classroom and chapel building in 1888 for use as a public school. It finally closed in 1938, after the township schools were consolidated, and the building was eventually abandoned. Subsequent owners were unsuccessful in efforts to have the Indiana Department of Conservation convert the property to a state park.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation and restoration</h3><br>
<p>Restoration of the college&#39;s main building began in the 1960s. Historic Madison, a Jefferson County preservation organization, received the school as a gift in 1973, but sold it in 1990. The new owners formed Historic Eleutherian College Incorporated, a non-profit organization, in 1996. Historic Eleutherian College operates the building as a local history museum.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Reverend Thomas Craven donated the land for the school, which eventually included two new buildings erected on the College Hill property in the 1850s. The main building housed a chapel and classrooms; a second building served as a dormitory. Both buildings were constructed of rough-cut limestone from nearby quarries. The two-story dormitory, circa 1854, had fifteen rooms. The three-story main building, completed in 1856, included a chapel and seven more rooms. The main building measures 65 ft by 42 ft. Its classroom spaces were capable of accommodating 200 to 300 students. The dormitory/boardinghouse located near the main school building measures 55 ft by 33 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The main building was constructed between 1854 and 1856 in the Greek Revival style. The three-story building has a rectangular plan that includes a square bell tower (belfry) centered above a gable-fronted main entrance. The gable roof includes a triangular-shaped wood pediment above the third-floor windows. The building&#39;s windowsills, lintels, and corner quoins are finished limestone, which contrasts to the rough-hewn stone walls. The north (front) facade of the building has three bays wide with two wooden doors flanking a single, ground-floor window. East and west facades are identical, with four double-height windows below four more on the third level. The south (rear) facade has two windows at the third-floor level.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The main building has a small entryway leading to a two-story chapel that runs the length of the building. The chapel includes double-height windows and a balcony, which crosses the north side of the room. The chapel ceiling is covered in wood panels. Stairs at each end of the entry hall lead to the upper floors. The second story includes two classrooms above the entryway and five additional rooms on the third floor. Stairs in one of the third-floor rooms leads to an unfinished attic. A ladder in the attic leads to the belfry tower. The cast bell was manufactured by J.A. Kelley of Franklin Brass Bell Factory, Madison, Indiana.</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>The restored main building (classroom and chapel), now a public museum, was listed on the National Register in 1993 and declared a National Historic Landmark on February 18, 1997. The National Park Service, USA Department of the Interior, also lists the building as a Network to Freedom Site. In 2004 the Indiana Historical Bureau installed a state historical marker at the college to honor its role as one of the earliest educational institutions in the state to enroll students of all ethnicities and genders.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Among the school&#39;s most notable African-American students was Moses Broyles, who became pastor of the Second Baptist Church in Indianapolis and an organizer of the Indiana Association of Black Baptists Churches in 1858. Broyles was a slave from Kentucky who purchased his freedom as an adult.</p><br>
<p>Notable female students included Sarah B. Hoyt, who also studied at Oberlin College. She became a teacher and later served as a high school principal at Newport, Kentucky. Rebecca J. Thompson, who completed studies at the Young Ladies Institute, which later became Shepardson College in Granville, Ohio, was chair of the mathematics department at Franklin College (Indiana) for thirty-eight years. She retired from Franklin College in 1910.</p><br>
<p>Eleutherian College.jpgOld NPS picture of the school</p><br>
<p>Eleutherian College 2.JPGDistant view</p><br>
<p>Ivoryton is one of three villages in Essex, Connecticut, United States in Middlesex County. Ivoryton Historic District, the historic district in the village, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on April 15, 2014.</p><br>
<p>The Ivoryton Playhouse, which is separately listed on the Register, is located within the district.</p><br>
<h2>History and historic district</h2><br>
<p>Ivoryton is roughly bounded by Main Street, North Main Street, Oak Street, Blake Street, Summit Street, Park Road, and Comstock Avenue. The area is known as a "well-preserved example of a nineteenth-century company town" and a world center of the ivory industry.</p><br>
<p>The area became industrialized when Comstock, Cheney & Company, an ivory import business founded by Samuel Merritt Comstock, an Ivoryton native, and his partner George A. Cheney in the 1860s was founded there. The district was one of several industrial areas in the Connecticut River Valley established during the late nineteenth century, and is also historically significant as a center for immigrants from Sweden, Germany, Italy, and Poland, who lived in worker housing areas throughout Ivoryton.</p><br>
<p>Pratt, Read & Company was located just a few miles away from Comstock, Cheney & Company along the Connecticut River, and these two largest American ivory manufacturers "commanded a monopoly on all ivory production in the United States." The area thrived between 1860 and 1938, and at its height the area employed and housed up to 600 workers. The National Register of Historical Places states:</p><br>
<p>Bannack is a ghost town in Beaverhead County, Montana, United States, located on Grasshopper Creek, approximately 11 mi upstream from where Grasshopper Creek joins with the Beaverhead River south of Dillon. Founded in 1862, the town is a National Historic Landmark managed by the state of Montana as Bannack State Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Founded in 1862 and named after the local Bannock natives, Bannack was the site of a major gold discovery in 1862, and served as the capital of Montana Territory briefly in 1864, until the capital was moved to Virginia City. Bannack continued as a mining town, though with a dwindling population. The last residents left in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>At its peak, Bannack had a population of about ten thousand. Extremely remote, it was connected to the rest of the world only by the Montana Trail. There were three hotels, three bakeries, three blacksmith shops, two stables, two meat markets, a grocery store, a restaurant, a brewery, a billiard hall, and four saloons. Though all of the businesses were built of logs, some had decorative false fronts.</p><br>
<p>Among the town&#39;s founders was Dr. Erasmus Darwin Leavitt, a physician born in Cornish, New Hampshire, who gave up medicine for a time to become a gold miner. Dr. Leavitt arrived in Bannack in 1862, and alternately practiced medicine and mined for gold with pick and shovel. "Though some success crowned his labors," according to a history of Montana by Joaquin Miller, "he soon found that he had more reputation as a physician than as a miner, and that there was greater profit in allowing someone else to wield his pick and shovel while he attended to his profession." Subsequently, Dr. Leavitt moved on to Butte, Montana, where he devoted the rest of his life to his medical practice</p><br>
<p>Bannacks sheriff, Henry Plummer, was accused by some of secretly leading a ruthless band of road agents, with early accounts claiming that this gang was responsible for over a hundred murders in the Virginia City and Bannack gold fields and trails to Salt Lake City. However, because only eight deaths are historically documented, some modern historians have called into question the exact nature of Plummers gang, while others deny the existence of the gang altogether. In any case, Plummer and two compatriots, both deputies, were hanged, without trial, at Bannack on January 10, 1864. A number of Plummer&#39;s associates were lynched and others banished on pain of death if they ever returned. Twenty-two individuals were accused, informally tried, and hanged by the Vigilance Committee (the Montana Vigilantes) of Bannack and Virginia City. Nathaniel Pitt Langford, the first superintendent of Yellowstone National Park, was a member of that vigilance committee.</p><br>
<p>A number of mining camps dotted the banks of Grasshopper Creek during the gold booms, starting at Bannack downstream almost to where the stream joins Beaverhead River. While many were short lived and considered just extensions of Bannack, others were designated towns of their own. Yankee Flats adjoined Bannack and was referred to as an "addition" to Bannack. Centerville and Marysville, about 1 mi downstream, were both laid out as little camps in the winter on 1862. By the following March, a townsite company had laid out and platted Centerville. However, Marysville, named for early arrival Mary Wadam, gained more people and so contemporary maps alternately used the name on record, Centerville, or the name used by locals, Marysville. Dogtown was south of and "near" Bannack in 1866. It was named for the numerous stray dogs, and had a blacksmith shop, saloon, and grocery store. Jerusalem (also New Jerusalem or Jerusalem Bar) was located 2 mi downstream of Bannack. Bon Accord, about 5 mi downstream, was a larger camp that saw a revival in the 1890s, and had a post office and school district. White&#39;s Bar, located possibly 10 mi downstream, was where John White and Company made the initial discovery of gold in 28 Jul 1862.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Dillon 18 WSW is a weather station located near Bannack.</p><br>
<h2>State park</h2><br>
<p>Sixty historic log, brick, and frame structures remain standing in Bannack, many quite well preserved; most can be explored. The site, now the Bannack Historic District, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961. It joined the roster of Montana state parks in 1954. Volunteers work in conjunction with the state to preserve the fabled ghost town.</p><br>
<h2>Bannack Days</h2><br>
<p>Every year, during the third weekend of July, this abandoned town witnesses a historical reconstitution known as "Bannack Days". For two days, Bannack State Park officials organize an event that attempts to revive the times when Bannack was a boom town, re-enacting the day-to-day lives of the miners who lived there during the gold rush. An authentic, old-fashioned breakfast is served in the old Hotel Meade, a well-preserved brick building which was for many years the seat of Beaverhead County, before it became Dillon, Montana.</p><br>
<h2>Physiography</h2><br>
<p>The mines surrounding Bannack are located on both sides of Grasshopper Creek, which flows southeastward through the district and into the Beaverhead River about 12 mi downstream.</p><br>
<p>The Miami Biltmore Hotel, commonly called The Biltmore Hotel or The Biltmore, is a luxury hotel in Coral Gables, Florida. The hotel was designed by Schultze and Weaver and built in 1926 by John McEntee Bowman and George Merrick as part of the Biltmore hotel chain. The hotel&#39;s tower is inspired by the Giralda, the medieval tower of the cathedral of Seville.</p><br>
<p>When completed in 1926, the Biltmore became the tallest building in Florida at 315 feet, holding the record as Florida&#39;s tallest building until 1928 when the Dade County Courthouse was built. At one time, the pool was the largest pool in the world and employed swimming instructor (and later Tarzan actor) Johnny Weissmuller. It served as a hospital during World War II and as a Veterans Administration Hospital and campus of the University of Miami medical school until 1968. The hotel was then abandoned for many years before again restoring operations as a hotel in 1987.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, Miami Biltmore Hotel was designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1925, land developer George E. Merrick joined forces with Bowman-Biltmore Hotels president John McEntee Bowman at the height of the Florida land boom to build "a great hotel...which would not only serve as a hostelry to the crowds which were thronging to Coral Gables but also would serve as a center of sports and fashion." In January 1926, after ten months of construction at a cost of $10 million, the hotel debuted with an inaugural that brought people down from northern cities on trains marked "Miami Biltmore Specials."</p><br>
<p>Visitors included the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Ginger Rogers, Judy Garland, Bing Crosby, Al Capone, and assorted Roosevelts and Vanderbilts as frequent guests. Franklin D. Roosevelt had a temporary White House office set up at the Hotel when he vacationed in Miami. There were many gala balls and aquatic shows by the grand pool, with the grounds acting as a venue for weddings and golf tournaments.</p><br>
<p>Just months after the hotel opened, on September 18, the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck. While the hotel was undamaged, providing shelter for over 2000 survivors, the disaster signaled the end of the Florida land boom.</p><br>
<p>Merricks Coral Gables company declared bankruptcy on April 13, 1929, and Merricks stake in the hotel was bought out by his partner, John McEntee Bowman in November 1929 for $2.1 million. Bowman resold the hotel in September 1931 to millionaire Henry Latham Doherty. A large part of the hotel&#39;s revenue in the 1930s came from aquatic galas. As many as 3,000 would come out on a Sunday afternoon to watch the synchronized swimmers, bathing beauties, and alligator wrestling. Johnny Weissmuller, before he was known for his role in Tarzan, broke a world record at the pool.</p><br>
<p>With the onset of World War II, the War Department took over the hotel, converting it to a 1200-bed hospital in November 1942. The building was transferred to the Army in 1946 and renamed Pratt General Hospital. Many of the windows were sealed with concrete, and the marble floors covered with government-issue linoleum. The hospital was transferred from the Army to the Veterans Administration (VA) in July 1947. Also the early site of The University of Miami&#39;s School of Medicine, Pratt General Hospital remained a VA hospital, with 450 beds, until a newer facility opened nearby in May 1968 and the building was vacated.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, through the Historic Monuments Act and Legacy of Parks program, the City of Coral Gables was granted ownership control. The building remained unoccupied for almost 10 years. Then in 1983, the City oversaw its full restoration to be opened as a grand hotel. It was reopened on December 31, 1987 as a luxury hotel and resort.</p><br>
<p>In June 1992, a multinational consortium led by Seaway Hotels Corporation became the new operators of the hotel under a long term management lease with the City of Coral Gables, and again made extensive refurbishments to the property. New lighting and telephone systems, repairs to the pool, furnishings, a complete guestroom renovation program and spa were completed.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In February 2009, the hotel opened the Biltmore Culinary Academy, a recreational hands-on cooking school with classes for adults and children taught by the hotel&#39;s chefs.</p><br>
<p>On April 18, 2012, the AIA&#39;s Florida Chapter placed the building on its list of Florida Architecture, 100 Years, 100 Places.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The hotel has been used as a setting in various movies and television programs, including Bad Boys, The Specialist, Shock Waves, CSI: Miami, Popi, and Miami Vice.</p><br>
<h2>Golf</h2><br>
<p>The hotel has an 18-hole, par 71, championship course designed by Donald Ross. Reopened in November 2007, following a $5 million investment, the course was restored and updated by Brian Silva. The original 1925 routing was retained, but all greens, tees, and bunkers were reconstructed and grassed to contemporary standards. The property again contracted Silva to provide additional improvements to the golf course in the summer of 2018.</p><br>
<p>The course annually hosts the prestigious Junior Orange Bowl International Golf Championship.</p><br>
<h2>Spa</h2><br>
<p>The hotel has a 12,000 ft&sup2; full service spa which is a member of the Leading Spas of the World.</p><br>
<p>The McKee Botanical Garden ) is a non-profit, subtropical botanical garden in Vero Beach, Florida. It is located at 350 USA Highway 1, Vero Beach, Florida.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was founded in 1929, when Waldo E. Sexton and Arthur G. McKee purchased an 80 acre tropical hammock along the Indian River. Tropical landscape architect William Lyman Phillips was hired to design its streams, ponds, and trails. Its indigenous vegetation was augmented with ornamental plants and seeds from around the world. In 1932, they proceeded to open the garden, then known as McKee Jungle Gardens, as a tourist attraction. Although the Garden was successful for several decades, it shut down in 1976, and most of its land was sold for development. The site remained vacant for twenty years until the Indian River Land Trust purchased it in 1995. The current Garden was formally dedicated in 2001. It is now a Florida landmark and on January 7, 1998, it was added to the USA National Register of Historic Places under its former name of McKee Jungle Gardens. Currently, there are several buildings on the garden including the office, gift shop, education center and a restaurant.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>The Garden&#39;s collections currently include:</p><br>
<p>Adenium obesum</p><br>
<p>Aechmea Blue Tango</p><br>
<p>Aechmea leuddemanniana Mend</p><br>
<p>Aechmea pineliana var. minuta</p><br>
<p>Aechmea Lil Harvey&#39;</p><br>
<p>Aleurites moluccana</p><br>
<p>Alpina purpurata Eileen McDonald</p><br>
<p>Alpinia calcarata</p><br>
<p>Alpinia zerumbet</p><br>
<p>Ananas comosus</p><br>
<p>Annona glabra</p><br>
<p>Annona muricata</p><br>
<p>Anthurium White Gemini</p><br>
<p>Ardisia crenata</p><br>
<p>Ardisia escallononioides</p><br>
<p>Aristolochia gigantea</p><br>
<p>Aristolochia grandiflora</p><br>
<p>Asclepias species</p><br>
<p>Bambusa chungii</p><br>
<p>Barleria micans</p><br>
<p>Bauhinia punctata</p><br>
<p>Bauhinia species</p><br>
<p>Begonia Beefsteak</p><br>
<p>Belamcanda chinensis</p><br>
<p>Billbergia species</p><br>
<p>Bixa orellana</p><br>
<p>Bromelia pinguin</p><br>
<p>Brugmansia species</p><br>
<p>Brunfelsia jamaicensis</p><br>
<p>Caladium Aaron</p><br>
<p>Caladium Florida Starburst</p><br>
<p>Caladium Florida Sweet Heart</p><br>
<p>Caladium Freda Hemple</p><br>
<p>Caladium Ginger Land</p><br>
<p>Caladium June Bride</p><br>
<p>Caladium White Queen</p><br>
<p>Caldium Scarlet Pimpernel</p><br>
<p>Calliandra haematocephala</p><br>
<p>Callicarpa americana</p><br>
<p>Callicarpa americana alba</p><br>
<p>Canna species</p><br>
<p>Carica papaya</p><br>
<p>Chamaedorea tepejilote</p><br>
<p>Citharexylum spinosum</p><br>
<p>Clerodendron fairchildianum Musical Note</p><br>
<p>Clerodendron speciosissimum</p><br>
<p>Clerodendrum bungii</p><br>
<p>Clerodendrum quadriloculare</p><br>
<p>Clerodendrum thomsoniae</p><br>
<p>Clerodendrum ugandense</p><br>
<p>Clivia species</p><br>
<p>Congea tomentosa</p><br>
<p>Cordia lutea</p><br>
<p>Cordia boissieri</p><br>
<p>Costus barbatus</p><br>
<p>Crinum americanum</p><br>
<p>Crinum asiaticum</p><br>
<p>Crinum species (dwarf)</p><br>
<p>Curculigo capitulate</p><br>
<p>Curcuma species</p><br>
<p>Delonix regia</p><br>
<p>Dendrobium × hybrid</p><br>
<p>Dichromena species</p><br>
<p>Dombeya wallichii</p><br>
<p>Dracaena fragrans</p><br>
<p>Epidendrum Kauai Sunrise</p><br>
<p>Eucalyptus deglupta</p><br>
<p>Ficus benghalensis</p><br>
<p>Ficus natalensis leprieurii</p><br>
<p>Gigantochloa pseudoarundidacea</p><br>
<p>Glandularia tampensis</p><br>
<p>Grewia afra</p><br>
<p>Habranthus brachyandrus</p><br>
<p>Hamelia cuprea</p><br>
<p>Hamelia macrantha</p><br>
<p>Hamelia patens</p><br>
<p>Hedychium gardnerianum</p><br>
<p>Heliconia rostrata</p><br>
<p>Hibiscus coccineus</p><br>
<p>Hibiscus rosa-sinensis</p><br>
<p>Hoya carnosa</p><br>
<p>Ipomoea carnea</p><br>
<p>Jacquemontia penthantha</p><br>
<p>Jatropha podagrica</p><br>
<p>Justicia species</p><br>
<p>Kaempferi pulchara</p><br>
<p>Laelia pacavia</p><br>
<p>Lagerstroemia speciosa</p><br>
<p>Lantana trifolia</p><br>
<p>Lonicera sempervirens</p><br>
<p>Megaskepas erythrochlamys</p><br>
<p>Mussaenda Dona Aurora</p><br>
<p>Myrsine guianensis</p><br>
<p>Nelumbo Mrs. Perry Slocum</p><br>
<p>Nelumbo species</p><br>
<p>Nymphaea species</p><br>
<p>Odentatum stricta</p><br>
<p>Oxalis Montana</p><br>
<p>Passiflora citrine</p><br>
<p>Passiflora hahnii</p><br>
<p>Passiflora species</p><br>
<p>Passiflora × violacea</p><br>
<p>Pentas lanceolata</p><br>
<p>Petrea volubilis</p><br>
<p>Phoenix hybrid</p><br>
<p>Plumbago scandens</p><br>
<p>Plumeria species</p><br>
<p>Podranea ricasoliana</p><br>
<p>Pseuderanthemum alatum</p><br>
<p>Pseudobombax ellipticum</p><br>
<p>Rondeletia leucophylla</p><br>
<p>Ruellia brittoniana</p><br>
<p>Russelia equisetiformis</p><br>
<p>Russelia sarmentosa</p><br>
<p>Sagittaria lancifolia</p><br>
<p>Stachytarpheta urticifolia</p><br>
<p>Vachellia farnesiana</p><br>
<p>Victoria cruziana.</p><br>
<p>Forestville is a ghost town in section 13 of Forestville Township in Fillmore County, Minnesota, United States. The nearest communities are Wykoff, to the northwest, and Preston, to the northeast.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The town of Forestville was settled in 1852 and organized in 1855, receiving this name in honor of Forest Henry, the first probate judge of Fillmore County. Henry settled in Forestville in 1854. The town was incorporated in 1891 and had a post office from 1855 until 1902.</p><br>
<p>Brothers-in-law William and Felix Meighen were some of the first settlers. Felix saw the need for a general store and stocked it with $700 worth of goods from Galena in October 1853. As more people arrived in Minnesota territory, the town gained a blacksmith shop, a cabinet shop, saw mills, farms, stores, grist mills and hotels.</p><br>
<p>The towns population began to drop after the railroad bypassed Forestville in 1868; many families began leaving for more prosperous areas. By 1880, the towns population was only 55 and most businesses had closed. As families left town, the Meighen family began buying up cheap property, and by 1889, they owned the entire town and its surrounding area. By the early 1900s, even the Meighen family had left Forestville, and their general stores doors were closed in 1910, marking the end of the towns life.</p><br>
<h2>State Park</h2><br>
<p>In 1949 the Minnesota State Legislature authorized the creation of Forestville State Park, with the intent to preserve what remained of the abandoned townsite. Mystery Cave was added to the state park in 1987.</p><br>
<p>Today Historic Forestville is operated as a historic site of the Minnesota Historical Society.</p><br>
